Language Learning - Case Study Example

Student Name: Tutor: Title: Theories of language acquisition and learning and approaches to language teaching Course: Theories of language acquisition and learning and approaches to language teaching Introduction Language acquisition and learning embodies many theories that have to be understood before the best approaches to teaching are selected. Teaching English as a foreign language can be challenging if the significance of the theories is not fully comprehended. As a teacher, I have to choose the best approach that will make me realize the desired outcomes. Teaching environments vary and the types of students change every time. Understanding which approach to use has to be a priority of every teacher. In this study I undertake an in-depth discussion of major theories of language learning and acquisition and the outcome to language teaching. I explore the relevance of the theories to me as a future teacher of English. I demonstrate the underlying links between the theories and the approaches to language teaching. As I prepare to take up my responsibility of shaping the future of learners through my teaching career, it is important to understand that foundations that have made learning and teaching possible. In this study I will look at creative constructive theory and Krashen’s contribution; the cognitive approach, communicative approach, humanism, and behavioral approach. The naturalistic Approach or Creative Constructive Theory This approach is founded on the assumption that acquisition of language is innately determined that people are naturally born with a certain system of language that they can rely on later. The innateness hypothesis is supported by numerous methodologists and linguists (Saville-Troike, 2006). Chomsky, who is one of the leading proponents, argues that every person has a set of innate properties of language which is the direct result for the mastery of the native language by the child within a short time. Through my personal experience I found out that some children will learn a second language faster than others while some will fail to master another language. I gathered this through reading teachers’ experiences in second language teaching particularly English. Therefore, learning and acquisition of a native language is easier compared to mastery of second language. Some linguists differentiate between learning and acquisition. Acquisition refers to a process that is subconscious which result in fluency (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). On the other hand, learning is a conscious process which presents itself in the form of learning structures and rules. Krashen goes ahead to explain that there are three internal processors that operates when students acquire or learn a second language: the ‘organizer’ and the subconscious ‘filter’ as well as a conscious ‘monitor’. The ‘organizer’ is in charge of organization of the language system of the learner, the application of incorrect grammatical constructions being provisional precursors of structures of grammar, the systematic occurrence of errors in the utterances of the learner and the common order through which structures are learnt. The ‘filter’ is in charge of the degree to which the acquisition of the learner is conditioned by social circumstances such as affective and motivation factors like anxiety and anger. The ‘monitor’ is in charge of conscious learning. Learners correct mistakes in their speech according to their self-consciousness and age (Benson, 2001). This theory has helped me understand the process of second language acquisition and learning and the effect of mood on the learning process as explained by Krashen in his argument. As a prospective teacher, I have to grasp factors that affect second language acquisition and learning and the entire process language acquisition and learning. Some of the factors that influence second language acquisition and learning include personality traits, age, input, environmental influences, innate mechanisms of acquisition of language, and classroom instruction. The teacher reflection is important and will assist in meeting and identifying challenges we come across in the everyday teaching practice. A teacher has to question the values and goals that guide his work, the context of teaching, and examine assumptions to be termed as engaging in reflective teaching. Thinking about teaching is not enough. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis This is hypothesis advanced by Stephen Krashen which one of theoretical perspectives in second language acquisition that is most controversial. It founded on a set of five hypotheses that are interrelated. 1. The acquisition-learning Hypothesis As explained earlier, Krashen holds that there is a difference between learning and acquisition. Acquisition is ‘an intuitive and subconscious process of constructing the language system, as opposed to the process by a child in ‘picking up’ a language’. Learning is a process that is conscious in which ‘learners figure out rules, attend to form, and are entirely aware of their own process’. 2. The natural order hypothesis The hypothesis states that the rules of language are acquired in a particular order that is normally predictable. Nevertheless, this does not meant that every individual will acquire structures of grammar exactly in the same order. It explains that, generally, certain structures tend to be acquired faster as compared to others. 3. The monitor hypothesis The monitor does not concern acquisition but learning. The system of learning acts only as a monitor or an editor, making small changes and polishing what has been produced by the acquired system. Krashen argue that three conditions are important for the use of the monitor: knowing the rules, focus on form, and sufficient time (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). The learning-acquisition distinction assists in second learning practice and research. An area like individual variation is very important. One can expect that performers of individual second language will vary in regard to the degree to which they apply the Monitor in the production of second language. Some performers can utilize the conscious knowledge of the language targeted at the convenient time (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). Users of Extreme Monitor might be editing their output to make it conform to conscious rules hence hampering fluency seriously. My future career has to develop as I learn more about theories of second language acquisition and learning. 4. The Affective Filter Hypothesis The hypothesis holds that it is not easy for a learner to acquire a language when he is angry, bored, or tense. Performers with attitudes that are optimal have a lower affective filter. A low filter translates to the performer being open to the language input. 5. The input hypothesis The hypothesis states that it is vital for the acquirer to understand language which is his above his competence level. If a learner is on a lever j the input he gets have to be j+1. The language exposed to the learner has to be beyond their current competence of understanding but they can make progress. Many scholars have disputed Krashen’s views particularly his vague distinction between the conscious (learning) and subconscious (acquisition) processes. Being able to understand theories like Krashen’s does will help me to comprehend the current development in the learning and acquisition of second language. Despite being controversial, Krashen provokes further research to be done in language acquisition and learning and for teachers to understand factors influencing acquisition of second language. As a teacher I will be able steer out of controversial areas and engage in areas that will make my students understand a second language with ease. This debate also gives me an opportunity to reflect on the whole process of language acquisition and learning and engage in necessary research that will enhance my competence in my future career. The cognitive approach Cognitive approach replaced the behaviorism approach in 1960s becoming the dominant paradigm. It focuses on the inner mental activities. Mental processes like thinking, knowing, problem-solving and memory have to be explored. Knowledge is seen as symbolic or schema mental constructions. This was a response to behaviorism where people are not seen only as ‘programmed animals’ who merely respond to environmental stimuli (Brown, 2002). People are beings that are rational and need participation for them to learn, and their actions are a sequence of thinking. Behavioral changes are studied or observed but only as a representation of what is happening in the head of the learner. Cognitive psychologists argue that one of the major features of acquisition of second language is the building up of a system of knowledge that can eventually can be used automatically be used for understanding and speaking. In the first place learners have the responsibility of building up a general knowledge of the language meant to be understood and produced (Harmer, 2006). Following a lot of experience and practice they will be able to apply certain parts of their knowledge very fast and without grasping that they did so. Eventually this grows to be automatic and learners focus on other language parts. Few empirical studies about the cognitive approach have been carried out owing to the approach being new. The processes of restructuring and automating are vital to the approach. It cannot be predicted which first language structures will not be transferred and which will. It is also not clear what types of structures are automatized by practice and which one are restructured. Psychologists observe that things that we use and know automatically may not be learnt via a gradual build-up of automation but they may sometimes depend on the interaction of knowledge that we already possess. Social interaction is important in cognitive development process. Piaget holds that development in a child precedes learning. On the other hand, Vygotsky is of the view that learning comes before development. Every function in the cultural development of a child appears twice: on social level and then on individual level (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). Vygotsky narrowed down the relationship between the socio-cultural context of shared experience and acting and people. Cognitive approach makes me see the paradigm shift in terms of theories from the behaviorism approach to the cognitive approach. Cognitive approach makes me get to know that stimuli alone cannot be the sole way of inducing acquisition of certain aspect. English teachers have to be keen and understand which means or approach can be applied in the teaching environment that they are based in. Cognitive theory of multimedia learning The multimedia principle states that individuals learn more from pictures and words than from words alone. Nevertheless, by simply adding words to pictures does not lead to the attainment of multimedia learning. The objective is to instructional media in the perspective of how the human mind functions. This is the foundation of cognitive theory of multimedia learning as advanced Mayer. This theory makes me as a future teacher to comprehend what methods can be used to pass across the message to the class during learning or a teaching session. Human minds process a specific amount of information in a channel at a time, and they comprehend sense of incoming information by creating actively mental presentations (Brown, 2002). Mayer also proposes three memory stores which include working, sensory, and long-term. When preparing lessons plans I will be able to fully apply this theory and to use tasks that are constructive in the classroom. Communicative language Communicative approach dates back in the 1960s when there were changes in the tradition of teaching British language and more generally in the developments of both North America and Europe. The approach is different from traditional approaches since it is learner-centered. Linguists observe that it is important to focus communicative proficiency in teaching of language and therefore, communicative language teaching can achieve this objective. As a teacher, I have understood that theories in linguistics have their own history which helps one in application in everyday life. There are various reasons for the quick expansion of communicative language teaching: the theoretical ideas of communicative approach found quick application by writers of textbooks; the work of the Council of Europe in the area of communicative syllabus design; and there was an incredible acceptance of the new ideas by the British language curriculum development centers and specialists. Proposers of this approach observe that the goal of language teaching is communicative competence (Baker, 2001). Communicative competence is the ability to enact and interpret appropriate social behaviors, and it comprises of active involvement of the learner in the realization of target language. Another objective is the development of processes for teaching of the four language skills that comprise of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The four skills establish the basis of the interdependence of communication and language. Fasold and Connor-Linton (2006) assert that Communicative language teaching pays attention that is systematic to structural and functional aspects of language. Pair and group work are most important aspects of communicative language. There are critics and supports of communicative language approach. Aspects of this theory include: a. Theory of learning These are meaningful principles, communication principles, and tasks principles. Communication principles are activities which involve real communication that target to promote learning. Task principles represent activities in which language is applied for carrying meaningful tasks which are supposed to promote learning. Meaningful principles represent meaningful language to the learner usually supports the process of learning. Of crucial importance is authentic and meaningful language use. b. Theory of language A vital aspect in Communicative Language Teaching is referred to as communicative competence. Competence is what a speaker has to know in order to be competent communicatively in a speech community. This comprises of both ability and knowledge for language use. Aspects of theories of language are interrelated and as a teacher I will have to get to explore the intricate levels of understanding language acquisition and learning. Getting to know how communicative language teaching takes place will help in getting the necessary material and appropriate lesson plans during the teaching sessions. Different theories of second language acquisition and learning are applied independently in varying environments. Humanism Humanism is a paradigm that emanated in the 1960s and focuses on human dignity, freedom as well as potential. A major assumption of humanism is that people will act with values and intentionality. This is different to behaviorist notion of operant conditioning and the cognitive psychologist belief that constructing meaning and discovering knowledge is central to learning. Humanists argue that it is important to study the person as a whole, particularly as a person develops and grows over the lifespan. The study of motivation, self, and goals are areas of special interest. The basic objective of humanism can be described as the development of autonomous and self-actualized people (Brown, 2002). Learning is personalized and student centered, and the educator takes the role of the facilitator. Cognitive and affective needs are important, and the objective is to develop people who are self-actualized in a supportive and cooperative environment. Humanism is pedagogical approach that holds that learning is seen as a personal act to fulfill individual potential. Applying different approaches as a learner grows has to be done in regard to humanism view. It makes me see that methods and practices have to be changed and applied where they give the desired outcomes in learning. Behaviorism Behaviorism is learning as change observed in behavior. Behaviorists observe that behaviors are observable and can be connected with other events that are observable. Carter and Nunan (2001) explain that the learning is based on stimuli: what possesses response, and impact, or how the organisms’ behavior changes. Conditioning is important in behavioral theories. They demonstrate that learning happens due to positive reinforcement resulting into old patterns being deserted owing to negative reinforcement. Learning activities which are demonstrated in the course of teaching are arranged contingencies of reinforcement whereby learners construct knowledge. I grasped that learning theories try to explain the process of learning through which learners are able to acquire knowledge, but there is no single theory that exhaustively explain all forms of learning (Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). Therefore, several theories have to coexist side by side and complement each other in the course of a learning process. As a teacher of second language, I would have to know where to apply which theory and if the desired outcomes will be realized. Behavioral approach makes me understand how a teacher can use motivation to make students progress in the second language acquisition and learning. The importance of rewards to motivate the positive aspect behavior can be attained in this approach. Punishment can be used to discourage unbecoming behavior. Conclusion Learning and acquisition of language is a process that requires various interventions from the teacher in order to enhance understanding of concepts. Second language learning and acquisition employs theories of learning that have been very important in shaping the trend in learning. As a teacher, I have to fully get involved in the learning session and use methods that will enhance growth and development of my students. The history of paradigm shift in theories gives me an opportunity of having a broader view of learning and acquisition of second language. No one approach can be solely responsible for the process of learning; many of the concepts and theories are interrelated and complementary. The knowledge of learning theories makes me understand various factors that affect learning like age, personality trait, and the environment. I also come to understand what I need to do in order to improve learning and acquisition of language. As a proactive teacher of English as a second language I have learnt a lot and intent to apply the knowledge in making learning sessions enjoyable and objective. Bibliography Baker, C 2001, Foundation of bilingual education and bilingualism (3rd ed), Clevedon, Multilingual Matters. Benson, P 2001, Autonomy in Language Learning, Longman, London. Brown, H 2002, Principles of Language learning and teaching, 4th ed. Longman, New York. Carter, R. & Nunan, D. (eds.) 2001, Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. New York: Cambridge University Press. Fasold, R. & Connor-Linton, J 2006, Language and Linguistics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Harmer, J 2006, The Practice of English Language Teaching (4th Ed.) Longman, London. Hmelo-Silver, CE 2004, Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review, 16: 235-266. Hmelo-Silver, CE & Barrows, HS 2006, Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator, Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1: 21-39. Lightbown, P & Spada, N 2006, How Languages are Learned (3rd Ed.), University Press, Oxford. Saville-Troike, M, 2006, Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Read More