Social Capital - Essay Example

?Social Capital Introduction This paper attempts to understand the concept of “Social Capital” and the reasons for which it is considered to be extremely crucial for the overall well-being of the society. For this purpose, this write-up focuses on the definitions of social capital given by Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman and Robert Putnam. These three were highly prominent and revered personalities in the realms of sociology and economics. Subsequently, the paper would also go on to examine the concept of community, and the manner in which the diverse aspects of the concept such as interactions, networks, etc, have undergone a drastic change, with the passage of time. Bourdieu came forward with his definition of social capital more than three decades back. Here, it needs to be conceded that his concept had lesser acceptability than his other works in the sphere of sociology. At a later point of time, James Coleman came out with his definition of social capital where, he endeavored to blend both economics and also sociology. As a matter of fact, he termed his elaboration as the rational action theory, which exerted tremendous influence on policy makers as well as sociologists. Putnam emphasized on both the key aspects of civic activity and association, and also the reasons for which they are pivotal for integration of society. (1) Definition of Pierre Bourdieu The explanation of social capital by Bourdieu is based on social hierarchy, and he strongly opined that economic capital is the basis for all forms of capital. He argues that it is but inevitable that social capital leads to inequality, and here it (social capital) is not fully reliant on cultural and economic capital. He explains that the returns that different persons obtain for the same capital tends to be unequal. Bourdieu adds that the returns are directly linked to the extent to which individuals can utilize various social networks. To support his argument, he uses professionals such as doctors and lawyers as examples. Bourdieu states that the social capital of these professionals is inclusive of their goodwill in the society and the social connections. And they (professionals) make full use of their social capital in bringing about a rise in the number of clients seeking their services. In fact, apart from furthering their present professions, the professionals also stand a strong chance of making it big in the avenue of politics. While focusing on all that, he says that persons depending solely on their academic qualifications and not on any social networks are in a position of disadvantage. They cannot attain the success that is being achieved by the aforesaid professionals, and the key reason for this being inadequate connections. (2) The definition of bourdieu totally opposes the more humane approach towards social capital. For, he emphasizes just on the way in which some select persons and groups are in a position to craftily utilize their networks, for furthering their own interests. Bourdieu does not see social capital as something that can benefit all members of a society. Here, it would be ironical to be noting that, this particular definition of social capital is in stark contrast to the values of democracy that Bourdieu endorsed in his political and journalistic activities. (3) Overall, he views social capital as a concept that just enables the already strong in maintaining their strength. Bourdieu’s analysis (of social capital) almost considers coordinated and collective actions as being irrelevant. His interpretation of social capital emphasizes that there is no way in which the less-fortunate people of the society can use it (social capital) to bring about an improvement in their circumstances. (3) Definition by James Coleman The definition of social capital given by James Coleman, a famous sociologist of the US, gained much more recognition than the one of Bourdieu. Backed by extensive studies that he carried out in the ghettos of USA, Coleman pointed out that social capital is not confined to just the elite sections of the society. He stated that even the underprivileged communities would be immensely benefited by it. (3) In support of his definition, Coleman brought forward the Rational choice theory, which maintains that every individual would be acting in way that is conducive their personal interests. Despite that, he states that people do cooperate with each other through various networks and social systems. Coleman maintained that there is a strong relationship between human capital and social capital, and that the latter aids in developing the former. As a matter of fact, he brought out two definitions of social capital, and which can be summarized as follows. Social capital constitutes the resources that are available through families and various social organizations and networks. These resources play a very vital role in ensuring that children grow up into responsible adults. And human capital is nothing but these responsible grown-up individuals. He adds that even though one’s own interest is the priority for people, yet, the several social networks make sure that there is mutual cooperation. Coleman maintains that, by means of this cooperation, apart from the individual interests, the overall well-being of the community and society is also addressed. (4) (5) Coleman explains that social capital did not result from any conscious effort from individuals. In fact, it (social capital) is an outcome of the endeavors of people in meeting their own priorities. According to him, this is what that makes social capital as being different from both physical and human capital. These two (physical and human capital) are results of conscious endeavors of individuals. Social capital, as per Coleman, is comprised of different social networks, in which, there is coordinated actions of individuals. (6) At this point, there is no hesitation in stating that there is total variation between the definitions of Bourdieu and Coleman. As has been seen earlier, the former emphasized that social capital helps only in the elite sections of the society getting further benefited, and provides no advantages whatsoever to the less privileged ones (sections). On the other hand, Coleman defines social capital as different social networks and organizations comprising of individuals where, both the individuals and also the society derives benefits. The actions of persons who are part of networks are guided by some norms, which facilitate mutual cooperation and coordination. (7) Definition from Robert Putnam Robert Putnam’s definition of social capital gained more popularity as well as acceptance than the ones of Bourdieu and Coleman. In fact, Putnam’s analysis of social capital has been so comprehensive that, it was able to find its way into diverse spheres of activity, and not just sociology and political science. He states that “social capital refers to features of social organization, such as trust, norms and networks that can improve the efficiency of society by facilitating coordinated actions.” A few years later, Putnam modified his definition by adding the term “participants” in it (definition). This is because, individuals (participants) in networks are also as important as trust, norms and networks. (8) Putnam conveys that there are two patterns of social capital: bonding social capital and bridging social capital. Bonding social capital is the one that strengthens the bond between people having same identities, while bridging social capital unites people pertaining to diverse social backgrounds. (9) Putnam emphatically states that there is a consistent drop in social capital, since the beginning of 1950s. He arrived at that conclusion based upon exhaustive surveys and studies carried out by other parties, in the avenue, and this adds further weight to his argument. Putnam observed that there has been a steady decline in things such as religious participation, political participation, charity work and informal social networks, to cite a few. Putnam says that heightened pressures of modern-day existence have led to a scenario where, people are able to hardly find any time for community activities. He forcefully states that the advent of television has contributed in no uncertain terms towards social capital decline. People are choosing to allocate more time for watching television rather than getting involved in constructive social activities and social networks. (9) (10) A brief comparison of the three definitions Here, a brief comparison of the three definitions of social capital won’t be out of place. Bourdieu defines social capital as an asset in hands of the privileged sections of society used by them, to their own advantage. Coleman also considers social capital as an asset, but the difference lies in the fact that, he maintains that it (social capital) is also beneficial for the underprivileged. Putnam gave a more comprehensive definition (of social capital), for he defined it from the viewpoint of the society, and not individuals or groups. At this juncture, it needs to be highlighted that Coleman and Putman did not give the required recognition to inequalities resulting from poor. Also, Bourdieu exaggerated the role of power, as well as failed to recognize the relevance of social capital for the less fortunate sections (of society). (11) The concept of community With modernization being the order of the day throughout the globe, community, at least as defined traditionally, is seen as an impediment to progress. Modern global society demands that people treat themselves as part of a much bigger community, and not the one that is confined to just a small location. Identifying oneself with a community where all the members shared the same values and beliefs is now a thing of the past. (12) In fact, it has been observed that modernization encourages healthy interactions between persons having diverse cultural and social backgrounds. Such kinds of interactions contribute to development and progress in no uncertain terms. It also has to be stated that the conventional small rural communities hinder growth and progress, while the urban communities, which conform to norms of modernization, are the ones that actually bring about development. The interactions in the modern-day World totally differ from the traditional community interactions. People are now necessitated to deal with strangers, as a part of their professional activity. In the bygones era people were dependent on experts for various purposes, but now they are reliant on expert systems. As a matter of fact, it is now being seen that the difference between the aforementioned rural and urban communities is steadily reducing. There are now several rural zones that are connected to the global market, courtesy the modernization. This aspect of the smaller communities getting connected to the global economic network is termed as glocalization. (13) (14) It is seen that with the advent of concepts like networks and social capital, the definition of community is indeed getting transformed. It was mentioned earlier in this essay that smaller rural communities hinder the progress, whereas the bigger urban ones are growth-friendly. But there are some real instances that go on to contradict that particular statement. There are small industrial zones in Taiwan, Italy and Mexico where, the development is primarily attributable to healthy interactions in smaller communities. In fact, it is being noted that these interactions are contributing immensely towards economic prosperity. It needs to be specifically stated that it is the social networks that own social capital, and communities are forms of those networks. When a community is viewed in this form (networks), the orthodox definition of community as a small and insignificant social system gets discarded. Community is then seen with a broader perspective. (15) (16) Conclusion The essay can be concluded by conveying that a perfect balance between both community and society is very much required. In fact, it also needs to be mentioned that, in the contemporary times, along with cooperation between persons of a network, coordination amongst various networks is also of paramount relevance. The present-day civil society is defined as one, in which, individuals tend to ignore their personal difference and focus on the common social objectives. (17) It has to be highlighted that, in the modern global society, none of the three definitions given by Bourdieu, Coleman and Putman can be said to be universally applicable. As a matter of fact, parts of all three of them (definition) are relevant, based upon the regions in question. Just as is the case with the concept of community, there is no standard definition of social capital. 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