Radiation Exposure and Radiation Disasters Affecting Marshall Island - Essay Example

Radiation Exposure and Radiation Disasters Affecting Marshall Islands Full Radiation Exposure and Radiation Disasters Affecting Marshall IslandsIntroduction The explosions of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ended the Second World War and demonstrated the potential of nuclear technology as a strategic military weapon. The potential drove further development of these weapons after the war to achieve higher yields and efficiency. These projects started with involvement from civil sector as well to input research from all available resources. However, concerns of security measures implemented by the private sector stalled the projects. The effects of radiation while dealing with radioactive material were demonstrated. The guidelines and limits were not established since the experience with radiation exposure was not enough to come up with a standard. To test the weapons, Nevada desert was used and underground tests were conducted to prevent massive radiation from affecting the ecosystem. However, as the magnitude of the projects increased, the US required a testing ground to effectively analyze the capabilities of the much higher yield weapons. Marshall Islands were taken from Japan during the Second World War and were administrated by the US under United Nations Trust Territory. These islands in the Pacific consisted of small islets and atolls. They were chosen as a proving ground for the nuclear tests. A total of 67 tests were conducted between 1946 and 1958 (Ferraro & Andreatta, 2012, p. 62). These explosions were mostly atmospheric and changed the ecosystem of the area. The paper will take into account the effects of radiation exposure and the magnitude of disaster on the Marshall Islands. Early Tests Two main atolls were used as testing grounds, Bikini and Enewetak. They are separated by 300 kilometers. The population was evacuated to safe distance on other atolls in the region, almost 200 kilometers away from the test sites (Angelo, 2004, p. 388). Bikini atoll alone experienced a total yield of 42.2 megatons during twelve years of testing. From 1946 to 1951, nine tests took place; eight of these tests were atmospheric and the yields were in kilotons, the highest being 225 kilotons (Nuclear Claims Tribunal, 2013). During the period, the fallout was controlled and the population was kept at a safe distance. The effects of these explosions were local and limited to some extent, however, in 1952, the yield drastically increased and 10.4 megaton test was carried out as opposed to kilotons before. The test left a crater of about 1 kilometer in diameter and the area was highly contaminated with radiation (CTBTO Preparatory Commission, 2012). The tests contaminated the soil by turning into radioactive materials. Thermonuclear Test The magnitude of tests increased and in 1954, hydrogen or thermonuclear bomb was tested for the first time. The yield was miscalculated and the outcome was almost three times the expected yield (Robbins & Adams, 1985, p. 12). The explosion was rated at 15 megatons and considered to be the most powerful explosion by the US. Furthermore, the wind condition at the test day was towards the population settlement on other islands. These two factors caused extreme radiation exposure to the inhabitants. Even with this exposure the affected community was evacuated two days after the test. Immediate Effects The immediate effect of the test included skin burns and hair loss in many inhabitants on the islands. The nearest island was 150, whereas, the farthest, 570 kilometers from the test site; however, a Japanese fishing boat about 150 kilometers was the nearest to experience the fallout (Lessard, 1986, p. 5). Debris including radioactive soil from the blast was received by the boat and from a crew of 23, one member died. The islands, however, received shower of radioactive particles in the form of ash carried by the wind. About 250 people were directly exposed to the radiation by the radioactive debris. The exact radioactive dose received by the inhabitants could not be determined as the outfall was an accident of miscalculations and medical teams were not prepared to measure exposure. Besides the immediate effects of skin burns and hair loss, the inhabitants inhaled contaminated air and ingested food for almost two days before being evacuated. Thyroid Cancer The most glaring long term health concern was the emergence of thyroid nodules among the affected. The thyroid glands abnormalities caused thyroid cancers among the affected. The abnormality was observed over decades and young in particular were at risk. The farthest island was cleared for inhabitation three months after the incident, whereas, the nearest island was declared suitable in 1957 by the US. Though, few families moved back to the islands, the most glaring issue over the decades still remain to be the development of thyroid cancer. Cancers The ionizing radiation given from radioactive materials in the debris of nuclear blasts are also considered as a major source of developing cancers in humans. The inhabitants directly exposed to the fallout developed various cancers decades after the exposure. Since the inhabitants indigested contaminated food during early hours of the exposure, they were at risk of cancers with different organs including the colon and stomach. Many exposure victims from 1954 test developed multiple organ cancers and in many cases new form of cancers were discovered for the first time. The islands were however, inhabited again and was estimated that 500 additional cancers would be detected among the 55,000 population of Marshallese; which is 9 percent increase from the average rate (Gusterson, 2007). Birth Defects Radiation exposure is known to alter the structure of DNA. It can break parts of the DNA and hence genetic defects were observed in the islands. Next generations were effected and many of the babies were born with missing parts from the body. These defects can also be linked with the population exposed in Hiroshima. Furthermore, these birth defects can also be detected in animals. Livestock shows weak signs of growth and at times are defected at birth. Environmental Impact The tests effected the environment as well. Besides the soil, sea water was contaminated by radioactive isotopes. Marine life was in turn contaminated and it was a major food source for the local people. This contamination was carried by the ocean currents and distributed at a global scale; however, this large scale distribution dilated the concentration. The soil contamination remained a major concern and changed the local ecosystem. Local produced crops carried contamination and even the coconut trees absorbed some of the radioactive isotopes from the soil. Concentration of these isotopes could be found in fruits and crops. Community Many of the Marshallese did not move back to the islands after the initial declaration by the US government to call them inhabitable in 1957. Early settlers were under observation and families chose to re-settle even when radiation levels were not suitable for living conditions. The second major re-settlement came in 1969. Attempts were made to make suitable changes in order to protect the inhabitants. Local food sources were replaced with foreign supplements, trees were replanted and even soil was replaced or covered at critical areas. Some families from the community, however, were again evacuated in 1978 when studies suggested that radiation exposures exceeded the limits. As per the report of International Atomic Energy Association in 1997, the islands were not suitable for permanent re-settlement and the inhabitants were at risk of exposure from consuming local food (International Atomic Energy Agency, 2012). Conclusion The Marshall Islands stand as a glaring example of the devastation the nuclear bombs can cause. The area suffered from nuclear exposure for twelve years of testing by the US and the average yield faced by the islands is 1.6 times of Hiroshima, every day for these years (Loeak, 2013). The tests contaminated the soil and sea over time, therefore, affecting the local food sources for the inhabitants. However, the biggest blow to the area came with the miscalculations of the Hydrogen bomb and the accidental exposure. The failure to evacuate the population within first few hours of the accident and the early re-settlement calls were neglect by the US government. These early calls were motivated by the desire to observe radiation effects on humans (Alvarez, 2010). The effects proved to be long term and even next generations of Marshallese are affected by the accident. The local ecosystem has changed and the magnitude of affects can still be seen as of today. The islands are termed as the most contaminated area in the world. References Ferraro, G. & Andreatta, S. (2012). Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Alvarez, R. (2010, May 23). The Legacy of US Nuclear Testing in the Marshall Islands. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/robert-alvarez/the-legacy-of-us-nuclear_b_586524.html Angelo, J. (2004). Nuclear Technology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. CTBTO Preparatory Commission, (2012). The United States’ Nuclear Testing Programme. Retrieved from http://www.ctbto.org/nuclear-testing/the-effects-of-nuclear-testing/the-united-states-nuclear-testing-programme/?textonly=1 Gusterson, Hugh. (2007, October 27). The Effect of US Nuclear Testing on the Marshallese. Retrieved from http://www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/columnists/hugh-gusterson/the-effect-us-nuclear-testing-marshallese International Atomic Energy Agency, (2012, January 17). Conditions at Bikini Atoll: Radiological Conditions at Bikini Atoll and the Prospects of Resettlement. Retrieved from http://www-ns.iaea.org/appraisals/bikini-atoll.asp Lessard, E. (1986). Review of Marshall Islands Fallout. Upton, NY: Brookhaven National Laboratory. Loeak, C. (2013, March 1). Marshall Islands President Loeak Calls for Justice on Nuclear Impact Issues. Retrieved from http://www.yokwe.net/index.php?module=News&func=display&sid=3150 Nuclear Claims Tribunal, (2013). US Nuclear Testing in the Marshall Islands. Retrieved from http://www.nuclearclaimstribunal.com/testing.htm Robbins, J. & Adams, W. (1985). Radiation Effects in the Marshall Islands. Upton, NY: Brookhaven National Laboratory. Read More