Sexuality - Research Paper Example

?Running Head: SEXUALITY Sexuality Sexuality Introduction A growing body of research works with issues of language and gender and/or sexuality in the field of education (e.g., Linne, 2003; Filax, 2002). These, and other research findings from Western cultural contexts, suggest that queer teachers and students i.e., teachers and students with a non-normative sexuality, often experience high levels of stigmatization, which has negative repercussions in their professional and scholarly lives. Experiences of discrimination and of stigmatization have negative repercussions in teachers' working lives, and they lower the quality of students' educational experience. Therefore, it is important to gain some understanding of the degree to which similar processes of stigmatization have negative effects in non-Western socio-cultural contexts. Insights from Psychoanalytic Theory In recent years, diverse authors in critical applied linguistics have highlighted various dimensions of power inequalities in the exploration of social identities (e.g., Varney, 2002; Simon-Maeda, 2004). The contribution of this critical approach has highlighted the need to challenge the reproduction of unjust power relations. It has also suggested strategies for empowerment and social transformation. However, this approach has been limited, to some extent, in its applicability to issues of gender and sexuality due to the influence of social constructionism. Mohr (1992) defines a radical social constructionist perspective as one that posits human beings as "blank slates" whose behaviors are determined by the influence of environmental factors. Mohr criticizes what he sees as a disregard for evidence of the role of biological factors in matters of gender and of sexuality. However, an acute focus on biological dimensions also has significant limitations. Sears (1997) evokes this problem in his analysis of sexuality education in most Western educational contexts: "Relying heavily on biology and side-stepping issues of morality, teachers seldom employ the social sciences and the arts to explore the labyrinthine social structures of sexuality and gender" (pp. 275-276). Dimensions of morality, emotional depth, non-conscious processes, and individual imagination in gender and sexuality are sometimes lost in approaches where subjects seem to be determined either by biology or by their participation in language and culture. In his article on agency and identity issues surrounding sexuality, Phillips (1996) remarks that social constructionism is now "[T]he dominant paradigm, indeed orthodoxy, within gay and lesbian cultural studies" (p. 105). This paradigm has limited success in initiating dialogue on gender and sexuality issues with those who conceptualize and experience their own sex and sexuality as solid facts, rather than the cumulative product of socio-cultural acts (Mohr, 1992). While Nelson (1999) lauds queer theory's slogan of "acts not facts," it has to be noted that the reverse position-facts, not acts- seems to be the perspective of the majority of practitioners in education. Indeed, Phillips argues that many students also feel this way with regard to their sense of self for sexual identities. On the one hand, then, there is a body of literature in critical applied linguistics and in queer studies (e.g. Perrotti & Westheimer, 2001; Wyss, 2004) that asserts a social constructionist perspective on gender and sexuality identities. The basis for this approach is often taken from a type of psychoanalytic drives theory that accords primal positivity to all expressions of sexual desire. This dominant perspective in academic spheres seems to have little potential for changing the contrasting perspectives of the majority of participants in education, and in society at large, where attention to the moral dimension of sexuality issues is prevalent. This perspective finds no point of connection with discourses that specify few moral parameters in considering diverse issues of sexuality such as the age-of-consent for minors, prostitution, pornography, and sexual assault. Pornography, abortion, and masturbation, for example, can be seen in a positive light in some aspects, but not in all. A psychosocial framework allows an evaluation of which cases can be viewed positively and which negatively. Strong resistance to social constructionist accounts of gender and sexual identity was evident in opposition to Butler's account of gender identity as performance. Was she arguing that individuals can set aside their masculinity or femininity as easily as professional actors undertake new dramatic roles? Later, Butler (1993) clarified that she had never advocated such a perspective, nor is that the perspective of social constructionists generally. She was, in fact, exploring the power of regulatory cultural norms to effect performativity, which actually brings the sexed and sexualized social subject into existence. She was not advocating a type of behaviorism, where repetitions of exposure to gender norms bring about the appearances of sexual difference. Rather, Butler was concerned with the emergence of sexed, gendered bodies through culturally mandated repetitions that are performative on the level of the psyche. Without an appreciation of the role of the psyche in the constitution of the sexed, gendered subject, this point is completely lost. Thus, an appreciation of the processes of psychic drives, identifications and disavowals that make norms of social identity operative in people's lives is necessary. This appreciation of both psychic and socio-cultural factors is denoted by the term "psychosocial" (Chodorow, 1999).Many aspects of psychosocial theory are seen as valuable elements in understanding gender and sexuality: A psychosocial framework takes account of both nature and nurture, of biological factors (bodily motivations and drives) and sociocultural factors (regulatory norms for social identity categories) (Mohr, 1992). A psychoanalytic perspective acknowledges the importance of constitutive experiences in the early years of life and of unconscious processes in shaping gendered and sexualized existence in adulthood. This is related to the power of familial attachments in people's decision-making, and to processes of attachment and disavowal (Chodorow, 1999). It helps explain why social subjects often fail to assert their own agency and seek masterful figures to direct their lives. This helps in making assessments of lasting social transformation (Chodorow, 1999). A psychoanalytic framework helps explain why some social subjects engage in a type of "moral panic" regarding issues of sexuality, seeking to discipline, regulate strictly, and condemn in tandem with a fascination for sex and incitement to engage in sex talk in various contexts (Mohr, 1992). A psychosocial framework provides some indicators of when progress is being achieved in personal and social life without obliging the individual to adapt to society and without imposing a plan of normal development that must be followed (Mohr, 1992). Sexuality Issues in Education The two contrasting principal theoretical frameworks of a broad spectrum of academic literature and research can be classified as a politics of (sexual) identity, where homosexuals are thought of much like an ethnic minority, and a politics of difference, such as various varieties of queer theory in which normative categories of sex, gender, and desire are call1ed into question. Some of the contributions to both bodies of literature are considered here in turn. Within a politics of sexual identity approach, a number of sources can be identified that confront homophobia as something which diminishes the quality of education for LGBT or gender non-conforming students and hampers the effectiveness of LGBT teachers (e.g., Perrotti & Westheimer, 2001; Wyss, 2004). In the Republic of Ireland one study (Glen/Nexus, 1995) found that 57% of respondents reported negative experiences while at school, as a result of being identified as lesbian or gay: "The problems included isolation, depression, poor self-esteem, harassment, and bullying" (p. 3). One of the many problems faced by these students was a lack of support from teaching staff and guidance counselors. One manifestation of this lack of support is found in the absence of lesbian and gay characters in school textbooks and in school library books. Mitchell (2000) addresses this gap and provides ideas on the use of lesbian and gay literature for children and young adults in schools. Issues surrounding homophobia in Australian teacher education are explored by various authors in a special issue of the journal, Teaching Education (Robinson, Ferfolja, & Goldstein, 2004). Links between homophobia and misogyny are examined by a number of authors in the same issue. Eckert (1994) argues that education plays a major role in perpetuating the unmarked dominance of heterosexual sexual identities. Eckert's research underlines how effectively high schools in the United States function in institutionalizing male-female hierarchies and heterosexuality itself. Simultaneously, they provide the setting for the stigmatization of boys who subvert the gender order by not performing hegemonic masculinity. This stigmatization takes its most worrying form in homophobic behavior. Issues of inclusion and advocacy began to reach a wider audience in TESOL for the first time in the early nineteen nineties. Nelson (1993) outlines and critiques the arguments made by language educators who take a stand against a lesbian and gay dimension in ESL life. She is cited by Vandrick (1997) in her exploration of hidden identities in the postsecondary ESL classroom. Vandrick adverts to the "psychic price" (p. 155) paid by students or faculty, such as lesbian and gay people, who are forced to sustain a social identity that is contrary to their actual identifications. Nelson (1999) shows a move away from a politics of sexual identity approach with her call for engagement with queer theory in ESL/EFL classrooms. She argues that a queer theory approach in the language education classroom can promote open-ended pedagogies of inquiry into diverse sexualities. Nelson's articles formed the basis for a TESOL Quarterly dialogue publication, in which readers of the journal responded in writing to recently published articles. TESOL Quarterly authors could then respond to these contributions. In her dialogue chapter, Nelson (O'Mochain, Mitchell, & Nelson, 2003, p. 139) outlines the value of "queer identity inquiry." Dominant discourses of sexuality rely on essentialized notions of identity and monolithic notions of culture which promote social constructs as natural ones. Teachers should seek ways to subvert such taken-for-granted notions within educational institutions. The second major theoretical framework that explores sexuality issues in general educational contexts is a politics of difference approach. Examples of this approach in educational contexts in the United Kingdom include Mac an Ghaill's (2000) essay on emerging black gay identities. The author argues that the categories of gender are often spoken through a "heterosexual matrix," and that schools play a significant role in regulating and reifying sexual/gender categories. The author goes on to name 10 ways in which sex and sexuality manifest themselves in school environment interactions. The modes by which one model of heterosexuality becomes normalized and enforced in educational contexts needs to be investigated and challenged (Epstein, O'Flynn, & Telford, 2002). There is a need for projects within educational contexts that will broaden research agendas that show how the normalization of heterosexuality affects everyone, not just those who identify as homosexual. A number of authors seem to be filling these research gaps. In her study of rhetorical features in college writing classes, Malinowitz (1995) shows how a queer theory perspective can foster the making of challenging discourse communities in L1 writing class, while Zeikowitz (2002) provides an account of the resourceful use of queer theory in literature classes. In North American contexts, queer theory has been applied to cases of youth culture with some success. Varney (2002) explores testimonies and comments from students who identify as queer and Asian American. All of them are members of youth groups, AQUA (Asian Queers Under 25 Altogether) and QUACK (Queer Asian Chicks). Varney attended meetings and social events of the two groups for about a year. Six young people who self-identify as queer provided testimonies that were then explored by the researcher. Varney critiques the legal and cultural discourses that tend to have a "silencing effect" on queer Asian American students. These discourses marginalize these students as they negotiate their lives in school environments where they are often labeled as deviant by peers and, in some cases, by school staff members. Varney delineates psychoanalytic theory in the theoretical framing of her study. Filax (2002) is another researcher in North American education who works with young people of non-normative gender and sexuality. Filax draws on a poststructuralist approach in her research in Alberta, Canada, a place she describes as the "province of the severely normal" (p. 2). Her research explored how queer youth made sense of their "identity, reality, and experiences in the context of heteronormative, homophobic, as well as alternative discourses." The situation of young queer people without cultural resources or helpful role models is adverted to by Linne (2003, p. 670) when he notes that "Young proto­queers-individuals with queer feelings yet lacking language to name them-are left with personal desires that have no social context to give them meaning"(p. 670). This study makes the case for a trans-disciplinary approach that draws on insights from psychoanalytic authors to interpret data on gender and sexuality issues. Such theory has influenced the work of various authors in general education. Psychoanalytic theory is employed by Redman (2000) to explore the unconscious fantasies of desire and abjection that underpin expressions of homophobia by secondary school male students in the United Kingdom. Britzman (1995) employs psychoanalytic theory in the interpretation of her research data and in the treatment of issues of gender and sexuality in educational contexts. While many studies and essays on gender and sexuality issues in Japanese educational contexts point to stigmatization, apathy, or lack of awareness, there are also contrasting findings with more positive findings from other sources. A sign that things may be changing came with the publication of a book on sexualities in Japanese education by Sugiyama, Komiya, Watanabe, and Tsuzuki (2003). The publication includes reflections on four topics: (a) problems teachers have encountered when issues of sexuality are raised in the classroom, (b) autobiographies of lesbian and gay youth, (c) a letter by a parent of a young gay man, and, (d) descriptions of resources for educators and for young queer people. Another indication of growing interest in issues of gender and sexuality in pedagogy in Japan is found in the increasing number of courses given at the tertiary level which directly engage with issues of sexuality and gender (e.g. Barry, 2002; Simon-Maeda, 2004a). Barry (2002) teaches a course on "Women's Issues in Japan" in a university of international studies. The original inspiration for the course derived from teaching an advanced writing class where Barry asked students to consult historical works to compare a social reality of the past with the same social reality in Japan today. Many of the students chose to research topics such as abortion, sexual harassment, stalking, and women's rights in society, and expressed a desire to explore these and related issues further. Barry developed a course on women's issues in Japan where students often question cultural norms of gender, sexuality, and the body previously taken for granted. "Students start asking the question why are we socialized to be embarrassed about talking about our bodies? Who benefits by making open discussions of men's and women's sexuality and sex-based social roles a taboo practice?" (p. 284). Regarding classroom materials, Nakamura (2000) analyzed 75 stories from senior high school English textbooks in terms of gender representations, reporting that male representations were 30% higher than those of women. Nakamura's studies were informed by postmodern feminism and historically informed analysis of gender issues. In the field of language education, Joritz-Nakagawa (2002) has published various newsletter articles on her pedagogical interventions to affirm the identities of her students who are not heterosexual. She reports high levels of participation by students in discussions she organized around issues of gender and sexuality. She also believed she may have been erroneously identified as a lesbian by a small number of students. Modica (2000) reports positive learning outcomes in his university EFL classroom where he conducted a course exploring sexuality awareness. Haynes (2000) has made numerous presentations at conferences and in high schools addressing AIDS education with discussion sessions that often involve issues of gender or sexuality. Summerhawk (1998) also points to positive developments regarding gay issues in ESL/EFL classrooms. While many students feel uncomfortable initially when sexuality issues are raised, this feeling often gives way to a stronger curiosity if the proper conditions are met. Summerhawk suggests various strategies for discussion of sexualities in Japanese language classrooms, including bringing in speakers to initiate inquiry into gay life in Japan. Conclusion This review of some relevant literature suggests that issues of sexual identity have attained a considerable degree of prominence in educational theory and research in recent years. Authors draw on two principal theoretical frameworks, a politics of sexual identity approach and a politics of difference approach. The former approach often plays a valuable role. The literature reviewed above has also clarified key aspects of psychosocial theory and why they can enrich critical engagements with issues of gender and sexuality. It seems that interest is growing in issues of sexual identity in educational contexts. However, the area remains considerably under-researched, and the implications of queer identities for educational experience are still unclear. Consideration of diverse sources underlines the necessity of promoting comprehension of the needs of queer teachers and students and of promoting "critical sexual literacy" (Sears, 1997, p. 273) in educational contexts. References Barry, B. E. (2002). Women's issues in Japan. JALT 2002 at Shizuoka, conference proceedings. 282-287. Britzman, D. P. (1995). Is there a queer pedagogy? Or, stop reading straight. 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Agency and identity in the gay and lesbian studies classroom: A perspective from Australia. In D. R Walling (Ed.), Open lives, safe schools: Addressing gay and lesbian issues in education (pp. 100- 112). Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta. Kappa Education Foundation. Redman, P. (2000). Tarred with the same brush: Homophobia and the role of the unconscious in school-based cultures of masculinity. Sexualities, 3,483-499. Robinson, K. H., Ferfolja T, & Goldstein, T. (2004) Editorial: Special Issue: Anti­Homophobia teacher education. Teaching Education, 15, (1) 3-8. Sears, T. (1997). Centering culture: Teaching for critical sexual literacy using the sexual diversity wheel. Journal of Moral Education, 26(3),273-283. Simon-Maeda, A. (2004). Transforming emerging feminist identities: A course on gender and language issues. In B. Norton & A. Pavlenko (Eds.), Gender and English Language Learners. Alexandria, VA: TESOL Inc. Sugiyama, T., Komiya, A., Watanabe, D., & Tsuzuki, M., Kumashiro, K. (2003). Translations of Homosexuality and other sexualities: How to teach about human rights and living together. Journal of gay and lesbian issues in education, I, 73­75. Summerhawk, C. McMahill, & D. McDonald (Eds.). Queer Japan: Personal stories oj Japanese lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transsexuals (pp. 77-97). Norwich, VT: New Victoria Publishers. Vandrick, S. (1997). The role of hidden identities in the postsecondary ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 153-157. Wyss, S. E. (2004). This was my hell: The violence experienced by gender non­conforming youth in US high schools. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 17(5), 709-730. Zeikowitz, R. E. (2002). Befriending the medieval queer: A pedagogy for literature class. College English, 65(1), 67-8. Read More