Young people who may be experiencing SOCIAL EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOURAL DIFFICULTIES where should schools focus - Literature review Example

?Young people who may be experiencing SOCIAL EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOURAL DIFFICULTIES: where should schools focus? LITERATURE REVIEW Table of Contents 1.Introduction 1.2. Students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders: Hallmark Features 1.3. Types of Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 1.4. Issues of Educating Students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 1.5. Summary 1.1. Introduction This chapter aims at providing the conceptual base of the overall study. It develops the chosen topic through critically reviewing up-to-date and relevant sources on the problem of education of young people who may be experiencing social, emotional or behavioral difficulties. Importantly, the review is based on variety of pertinent scholarly sources: books, journal articles, etc. The research hypothesis of this part of the research is “Schools should primarily focus on the problem of inclusion of young people who may be having social, emotional and behavioral difficulties into mainstream schooling”. The hypothesis is tested through critical analysis of a number of viewpoints expressed by both academic and practicing educators. The topic has been developed through analysis and critical review of a range of pertinent sources in the following directions: 1) students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders: hallmark features; 2) types of Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders and 3) issues of educating students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. 1.2. Students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders: Hallmark Features Social Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties is a term that has been defined in many ways, which allows interpreting it rather broadly and vaguely. The term is predominantly used in the sphere of education service to refer to severe and continuous difficulties that students face in behavior emotions, as well as social conduct and relationships. Importantly, the difficulties mentioned are found to interfere with students’ progress in learning and development. As Poulou and Norwich point out, “it is a term that overlaps with psychiatric disorder at one end and disruptive behavior or behavior problems at the other” (Poulou and Norwich, 2002, p. 112). The term’s usage has faced a lot of confusion, yet a plenty of definitions have got a common point. It is its focus on behaviors found disturbing by the majority of teachers’ staff and parents (Galloway and Goodwin 1987). The typical definition deals with understanding SEBD as internalizing and externalizing difficulties. In other words, difficulties that are related to emotional and behavioral or social conduct. According to Cooper, the term has been widely used among educators and focuses on a generally vast number of problems (Cooper 1996). The characteristics that are applicable to students with SEBD are of behavioral and social nature. The analysis of academic research of the last two decades allows concluding that these students often display aggression, as well as delinquency, which are both types of externalizing behavior (Achenbach, 1991). Also, they frequently display types of internalizing behavior such as anxiety plus depression (Morris, Shah, and Morris, 2002) and if to speak about their peers as well as teachers, they have impaired relationships with the latter (Walker, Ramsey, and Cresham, 2004; Walker et al, 1992). Additionally, students with EBD are often characterized as having critical deficiencies in their ability to read and react to social signals (Walker, Colvin, and Ramsey, 1995; Coie & Jacobs, 1993). At the same time, the academic deficits which are found within this subgroup of students have been the focus of most recent research in the field (Wehby, Lane, & Falk, 2003; Lane, Gresham, & O'Shaughnessy, 2002; Hinshaw, 1992; Lane & Wehby, 2002; Lane, 2004). Students that are diagnosed with having EBD face significant difficulties in how they develop and maintain satisfactory relationships with other people. Other problem areas include display of prosocial behavior signs, and being socially accepted by peers and educators (Gresham, 1998; Walker, Ramsay, & Gresham, 2004; Kauffman, 2001). These deficits of skills that are responsible for social interactions cause short-term as well as long-term hardships in educational along with psychosocial and vocational areas of children’s functioning (Newcomb, Bukowski, & Pattee, 1993; Kupersmidt, Coie, & Dodge, 1990; Parker & Asher, 1987). It is worth mentioning that how an individual adjusts in a personal and social aspect greatly depends on his ability to start, support and facilitate relationships with other people that are meaningful to him. The mentioned interpersonal relationships that are positively colored, in their turn, are the basis for peer acceptance. They also bring long-lasting friendships that are rewarding for each of peers. (Newcomb & Bagwell, 1995; Gresham, 2001; Walker et al., 2004). Furthermore, a great part of social competence is represented by an ability to finish destructive interactions and those relationships which may be harmful for an individual (Gresham, 2002; Elliott & Gresham, 1991). Additionally, research argues that the main reason young people and kids are addressed as and classified as having EBD is deficiencies of their social competence (Forness & Knitzer, 1992). 1.3. Types of Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders According to R. Boucher one can generally classify major personality disorders into three main types: 1)“odd or eccentric behavior” (here belong people with paranoid, as well as schizoid plus schizotipal disorders); 2) people who seem to be over anxious and fearful (the types included are avoidant, passive-aggressive, dependent and obsessive-compulsive); 3) people whose conduct is recognized dramatic, over emotional and unstable, for instance, borderline, antisocial, histrionic and antisocial types (Boucher, 1999). Borderline personality disorders are found in adolescent students who have severe disturbance on the border of psychosis and pathological forms of milder character. The oddness associated with this disorder is general as well as specific. Generally speaking, “some of the children who have been described as borderline have a quality of changing shape, a luidity” ( Pine 1982, p. 867). In his turn, Waller speaks of affective instability ( Waller, 1994). On a broad level, the disorder is recognized to be elusive, as well as inconsistent plus contradictory in essence (Kreisman 1989). Next, antisocial personality disorder (abbreviated as APD) is the term used to define an inadequate personality that “chronically disregards and violates the rights of others” (Boucher, 1999). Not only do these people violate other people’s rights on a continuous basis, they are also often found to be law breakers ( Nevid, Rathus, and Greene 1994). Furthermore, narcissism has been recognized to increase in the recent years, which is most often found in adolescents with EBD. A person who is characterized by a narcissistic personality disorder can be described as the one that developed an inflated sense of self (Boucher, 1999). Importantly, with progression of narcissism, the significance of other people and things beyond a person’s personality is being lost (Malmquist, 1972). At the same time, being lead by insatiable ambition, people with this disorder often devote all their efforts to work to get admiration of the people around (Nevid, Rathus, and Greene, 1994). Disruptive behavior disorders are linked to people’s behavior that disturbs established social norms and values. Such behavior disorders as ADHD (attention-deficit disorder with hyperactivity), CD (conduct disorder) and ODD (oppositional-defiant) disorders are considered disruptive due to their noncompliance, common internalizing and externalizing features (depression, psychosis, aggressiveness, violence, etc), and arousal dysfunction. These disorders are thought to be the most serious ones in relation to young people’s health and have become a focus of numerous studies (See Appendix) (Harden et al, 1995; Volavka, 1995; Livingston, Dykman, and Ackerman, 1990; Routh and Daugherty 1992; McKinney, Montague, and Hocutt 1993; Slomkowski, Klein, and Mannuzza 1995). Eating disorders are recognized to be some of the most dangerous health problems among youth (Feldman and Elliott 1990). Most widespread disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and obesity. According to R.Boucher, “anorexia is a disorder characterized by extreme weight loss caused by a refusal to eat; bulimia is characterized as a combination of gorging and purging food; and obesity involves chronic overeating and extreme weight gain (assuming there is no organic problem over which the individual has no control)” (Boucher, 1999). As for mood disorders, these refer to “pervasive and sustained emotional state that, in the extreme, markedly colors one's perception of the world” (Kashani and Eppright 1991) and distinctly impresses other people. The study of mood disorders has been viewed extremely important since the latter tend to influence adolescents greatly. For instance, sarason and Sarason have recorded the growing prevalence of depression among adolescents (Sarason and Sarason, 1993) Moreover, anxiety disorders are growing due to the challenges of modern lifestyle. Anxiety, at its extreme cases, is one of the most crippling emotions and contributes to three biggest mental disturbances: the rest being depression and stress (Wolman and Stricker 1994). Finally, some other disorders that may be often found in mainstream schools are post-traumatic disorders, communication disorders, learning disabilities and Tourette’s syndrome. Students who have been diagnosed with these conditions are recognized as those who require special education support (Boucher, 1999, p. 223) 1.4. Issues of Educating Students with Social Emotional and Behavioral Disorders In the context of modern schools, this subgroup of students often neglected for a long period of time, is now getting more attention from the side of teachers, scholars and school administration. As a rule, it consists of children or adolescents whose educational needs go beyond common ones despite the fact the majority of kids with SEBD attend regular schools. Hence, researchers on the international level have focused largely on designing innovations and facilitating the students with special needs in ordinary school system (UNESCO, 1995; Mittler, 1995; Wang, 1995). This has resulted in the fact that today the majority of kids with SEBD go to regular schools and are educated at ordinary classes. This inclusive approach is above all directed at teachers and school officials whose job in this respect is to maintain a correct educational focus and play a positive role in the lives of children with SEBD. One of the concerns of school education in relation to the pupils with special educational needs (SEN) is teachers’ competence and personal attitude to (S)EBD learners. An overview of studies on the problem both on the international and national level points at the problem of teachers’ inability to maintain a positive atmosphere at the class and display adequate attitude towards SEBD children. According to a number of scholarly researches, teaching children with SEBD is thought to be a frustrating job for many teachers, which may lead to their developing feeling of helplessness along with that of incompetence (Gray et al, 1996; Lennox, 1991; Leadbetter and Leadbetter, 1993; Chazan et al, 1994; Bennet, 1992). Hence, one of the issues that are currently being researched is how to improve teacher’s ability to cooperate with (S)EBD learners (Poulou, Norwich, 2002). Yet, probably the main focus of research efforts has been placed on improving academic achievements of students who have SEBD. To specify, Kaufmann has found out that pupils with EBD are characterized by lower scores of academic achievement, being a year or even more behind ordinary students in every content area (Kaufmann, 2001). Similarly, research completed by Greenbaum et al and other scholars proves that students with special educational needs display significant academic deficits in many study areas if compared to their peers without EBD (Greenbaum et al., 1996; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1986 Mattison, Spitznagel, and Felix, 1998; Nelson, Benner, Lane, & Smith, 2004). Data collected in course of academic studies suggest that students with SEN might display even greater deficits of academic achievements than students who have learning disabilities (abbreviated as LD) or are diagnosed with Mild Mental Retardation (abbreviated as MMR), as in the study by Gajar (Gajar, 1979). At the same time, it has been not clearly determined whether this is truly so since the studies by Epstein and Cullinan, as well as Wagner have recorded higher academic achievements in relation to students with SEBD if compared to those with learning disabilities and Mild Mental Retardation (Wagner, 1995; Epstein and Cullinan, 1983). Students with EBD have been proved to find it difficult to master necessary academic skills. This has been recognized to be an obstacle to learning in the future (Gunter and Denny, 1998). To add, students who have EBD have been found to run the risks of getting lower grades or failing at school, as well as dropping out of school and are more likely to experience grade retention in comparison with regular students (Wagner, Cameto, & Newman, 2003). Recently, the research by Lane et al aimed at comparing students’ achievements in self-contained classrooms to those of students’ who study in self-contained schools has proved that students who study in self-contained classrooms have better academic achievements and higher academic grades in a number of subjects including reading comprehension, written language, broad reading, oral language, broad math and oral reading fluency than students who were taught in a self-contained school (Lane et al, 2005). Another educational issue which has received enough attention in the recent years is implementation of prevention programs especially within the subgroups with aggressive EBD students. For instance, the study by Frey, Hirschstein and Guzzo (Frey, Hirschstein and Guzzo, 2000) has proved the positive effect of the Second Step program on forming social and emotional competency of EBD students. Specifically, the program, if appropriately implemented, along with a few other measures taken to increase the competency, may be helpful in forming empathy, learning how to manage anger and solve social dilemmas in an effective way. To add, emphasis has been put on SST (social skills training) of late. The social skills training has been an important theme of recent investigations in the sphere of EBD students education (Ang & Hughes, 2001 ; Beelmann, Pfingsten, & Losel, 1994; Losel & Beelmann, 2003; Quinn, Kavale, Mathur, Rutherford, & Forness, 1999; Schneider, 1992; Schneider & Byrne, 1985). Careful meta-analysis of these studies has proved the efficiency of SST since 64 % of students that received SST improved their social competence in comparison with 35% characteristic of those who did not receive it (Gresham et al., 2004). Thus, interventions have been proved effective in forming social skills competency with a classroom with SEN. Furthermore, the focus of the educational research concerning the special needs students has been placed on the role of community (and school in particular) in educating children with SEBD. According to Ziontis, Ziontis and Simpson “communities have the potential to either further or hinder children’s emotional development” (Ziontis, Ziontis and Simpson, 2002, p. 47). In the school context, there has been recognized a need to accommodate needs of individual people and their personalities rather than focus too much on average students. Just because schools may serve both as a source of problem and a source of positive influence, educators are advised not to make mistakes which can lead to mistrust among students with SEBD. To illustrate, teachers should avoid communicating with children’s parents too much, which may help establish trust and understanding in their relationships with special needs students. This can be explained by the fact that adolescents (with SEBD) are rather vulnerable and may feel distrust to the teachers in case their parent-child relationships are not that open and sincere (Ziontis, Ziontis, and Simpson, 2002, p. 49). Additionally, the role of recreational activities in helping children overcome their behavioral and emotional disorders is widely supported. As Ziontis, Ziontis and Simpson point out, “Towns and cities that provide adequate recreational facilities and other opportunities for young people to spend time together are most apt to foster good behavioral and emotional development” (Ziontis, Ziontis, and Simpson, 2002, p. 49) As far as EBD often suggests aggressiveness, social inadequacy, verbal and physical abuse, students with such EBD may form so called “hard classes”. Coping with the problems within these classes is the object of Rogers’ famous book “Cracking the Hard Class”. According to the author, a teacher should strive to overcome this syndrome through employing a variety of practical tools. These are understanding what makes his class be the way he is; making up a plan of class conduct; developing the supportive attitude from the side of colleagues, which is “the crucial feature in dealing with the hard class”, and doing a follow-up on students who display disruptive behavior, as well as altering the patterns of unsatisfactory conduct and helping relief teachers along with the hard class itself (Rogers, 2006, p. X). Addressing the problem of behavior difficulties within schools in general and the need to help students with behavior disorders in particular, Watkins and Wagner suggest that a school has to shift its attention focus from a pupil with behavior problems on the very incidents of misconduct. This can be done via consideration of disruptive patterns and may lead to implementation of whole-school strategies aimed at improving discipline and overcoming violence. To be more specific, Watkins and Wagner suggest that there be “a multi-level view” of students’ behavior, which relies on the impact of contexts in which the latter takes place and corresponds to three levels of behavior displayed by students: individual, classroom and organization levels. Successful behavioral policy within schools need to address each of these levels since all of them have their contexts and are interrelated. Importantly, Watkins and Wagner’s strategy to better the behavior at school is outlined in the following manner: 1. Selecting pertinent methods of classroom maintenance through: Developing methods for gaining compliance [that is methods how best to gain compliance]? Developing methods for maintaining classrooms in some teacher-centered form [that is, about how to maintain teacher centered classrooms]? Developing methods for learning about behavior and thereby improving our schools and the learning in the [that is about ways to understand and improve the school’s role in producing and changing behavior]? 2. Mapping the difficulties… attempting to adopt a multi-level view… to obtain a picture of the real pattern of difficulties in the school [that is, analyze and prioritize behaviors arising at individual, class-wide and school-wide levels]. 3. Designing the intervention…a team of insiders… supported through appropriate frameworks for thinking and action, will be best placed to devise and implement the intervention. 4. Reviewing the overall impact…[the effectiveness of the intervention]… review is a key to learning, and needs to be planned in so that the effectiveness of the intervention can be evaluated (Watkins and Wagner, 2000, pp. 19-20). Similarly, Visser et al expand on the notion of successful schools as those where “misbehavior was conducted but it was the “deed ” which was condemned not the person (Visser et all, 2002, p. 25). According to Wearmouth, Glynn and Berryman, such position helps to establish a more positive ground for producing solutions that aim at collaboration rather than solving the problem through punishment and students’ humiliation. It’s significance is also conditioned by the fact it considers the cultural contexts of students’ conduct (Wearmouth, Glynn and Berryman, 2005, p. 210). Furthermore, the issue of inclusion of the students with behavior difficulties into the regular school surrounding has been studied. Specifically, according to Daniels et al as well as Visser et al (2002) schools may have positive and rewarding experience of such inclusion in case the emphasis is on the process of learning and reaching, not some deficits a particular student might possess (Daniels et al, 1998; Visser et al, 2002). In the context of EBD students inclusion into mainstream school environment the attention of researchers has been focused on designing more strategies to be implemented with an aim to better cater for diversity among the members of the same class (school). Specifically, Booth et al identifies three major parts of the Index for Inclusion (Booth et al, 2000). They are school culture, school policy and school practice. Interpreting the concept of school culture as one of the major elements of successful inclusion, Corbett writes: There is a culture of open cooperation in the school. Every morning the staff team meet before school starts in order to go through the key of the day and in order to share any particular issues or problems. There is no stigma attached to being unable cope with a child behaving in a way that is disruptive to the class… There is a culture of reasoned dialogue, rather than confrontation. Children are listened to with respect. This overtly child-centered approach does not make this an anarchic school, but one which feels safe, comfortable and confident (Corbett, 2001, p. 165). Next, school policy to promote inclusion functions at two major levels: in how funds for personnel are used and in how learning support assistants (LSAs) are made use of. Besides, schools may have access to specialists who deal with specific learning difficulties, as well as counselor. At the same time, three times a week there comes a counselor, which very supportive for both teachers and students’ parents (Wearmouth, Glynn and Berryman, 2005, p. 210). In the context of school practice, efforts to ensure commitment to making all learners a part of the teaching and learning process owing to the efforts of teaching staff are encouraged. This is advised to be done in such a way that in a group where learners with some disorders are included given tasks bring benefit to every group member. To explain, what appears to be good for a child with SEN is helpful to his classmates through interactive learning (Wearmouth, Glynn and Berryman, 2005, p. 210). In Great Britain, scholarly research on education of children with EBD has focused on a few subjects. Namely, these are; the services quality that the kids with EBD get in the U.K. (DfEE, 1997; Cole et al, 1998) the growing numbers of exclusions from English schools on a permanent and fixed-term basis along with the subsequent provision that is made for students who have been excluded (Hayden, 1997; Castle and Parsons, 1997; DfEE, 1999) ethnic minorities (or other social groups that are especially vulnerable as, for instance, kids who are the subject of care by the local authorities) over-representation in the figures that reflect exclusion (OFSTED, 1997; SSI/OFSTED, 1995; Osler and Hill, 1999) the negatively colored influence that disaffected youth has on the community which they deal with after school (Audit Commission, 1996). In relation to this, a number of studies evolved focusing on EBD students educational needs. Importantly, Daniels and Cole state that educators “must prepare our young people for certain forms of participation as well as encourage them to aquire specific skills and understanding” (Daniels, Cole, 2002, p. 325). This view is based on realizing that outcomes is what modern educational system is preoccupied with, “even though the outcomes for pupils described as having EBD are notoriously poor” (ibid., 325). According to Bentley, this objective can be achieved through overcoming the challenges of three kinds. They are “finding ways to overcome structural and spatial disadvantage, develop the basic social and emotional competence of at-risk young people, and the use of sources of effective motivation so that they contribute to effective learning are huge tasks” (Bentley, 1998, p. 81) In the context of the United States, the problem of interventions within EBD students education has been developed in several directions of late. Specifically, it has been proved that interventions which focus on family wellness promotion and incorporate family support may be successful tools of young people’s maltreatment. Also, home visiting approach has lead to reductions in physical abuse, aggressive behavior and so-called harsh parenting. Next, well-designed early education interventions have lead to reductions in child maltreatment. In terms of academic achievement, the effect of school-based learning programs that are socially and emotionally oriented on academic achievement as expected outcome has proved to be positive and equal to a ten percentage grades improvement in testing (Wilson and Lipsey, 2007). In the American context, the effects of the Good Behavior game have been studied. The latter has been recognized to reduce aggressive conduct and the probability that aggressive students who were initially displayed disruptive behavior would be diagnosed with conduct disorder by the time they study in the sixth grade (Wilcox, Kellam, et al., 2008), as well as reduce the probability that persistently aggressive boys will be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder similarly to adults (Petras, Kellam, et al., 2008). Furthermore, the levels of aggressive student conduct can be reduced through relating interests of teachers and families (Eddy, Reid, and Fetrow, 2000). Additionally, Fast Track approach has been explored and recognized to be able to diminish the levels of self-reported antisocial conduct. Plus, in terms of kids who run the biggest risks, diminished the incidence of behavior disorder and ADHD (Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2007). Also, owing to recent meta-analyses it has been established that that interventions that aim to prevent depression may decrease the number of new cases of this disease. 1.5. Summary To sum up, in this Chapter the conceptual base to our research of educational problems of students with Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Difficulties has been provided. The topic has been developed through analysis and critical review of a range of pertinent sources in the following directions: 1) students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders: hallmark features; 2) types of Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders and 3) issues of educating students with Social, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Based on critical analysis of a number of academic sources, several conclusions can be made: 1) Young people who may be experiencing social, emotional and behavioral difficulties are a specific group of students that may be characterized by peculiar modes of behavior, health conditions, and are often emotionally and socially different from regular pupils. 2) Due to the fact that many social, emotional and behavioral difficulties are rooted into serious disorders (e.g. mood disorders, eating disorders, disruptive behavior disorders, etc) the teaching staff needs to be specially trained to be able to adequately communicate with these children and help them overcome their problems. 3) Owing to the findings provided by recent studies young people who may be experiencing social, emotional and behavior difficulties should not be educated in special closed schools. Instead, they need to be included into the mainstream schools environment, which will help them achieve better progress in studies. This can be achieved either by forming a separate class consisting of children with SEBD (this appears more effective), or including a few children into the general class surrounding. 4) Schools need to provide adequate counseling and medical support to young people with SEBD who study in regular schools. 5) In the schools where there is a certain percentage of young people with SEBD particular attention should be paid to discipline. This is done according to the principle of mutual respect and assistance. 6) Additional facilities should be made available for children with SEBD (playgrounds, gyms, etc) so that they could better develop n different levels. 7) Peculiarities of young people with SEBD should be carefully studied and relevant patterns of teacher-student relations should be designed in each particular case (this is a kind of recommendation for teachers who deal with such students). Thus, in the course of this research the hypothesis “Schools should primarily focus on the problem of inclusion of young people who may be having social, emotional and behavioral difficulties into mainstream schooling” has been tested and found relevant. This conclusion has been made on the grounds of careful literature review and critical analysis of the up-to-date sources on the topic. References: 1. Poulou, M., Norwich, B. (2002) Cognitive, Emotional and Behavioural Responses to Students with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties: A Model of Decision-Making. British Educational Research Journal Vol. 28, No.1, Feb. 2002. 2. Bennet, R. (1992) Discipline in schools: the report of the Committee of Enquiry Chaired by Lord Elton in: K.Wheldall (Ed.) Discipline in schools: Psychological perspectives on the Elton Report (London, Routledge). 3. Chazan, M., Laing, A., and Davies, D. (1994) Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties in Middle Childhood (London, Falmer Press). 4. Cooper, P. (1996) Giving it a name: the value of descriptive categories in educational approaches to emotional and behavoural difficulties, Support for Learning, 11(4), pp. 146-150. 5. Gray, P., Miller, A., and Noakes, J. (1996) Challenging Behaviour in Schools (London, Routledge). 6. Lennox, D. (1991) See Me After School (London, David Fulton). 7. Leadbetter, J. and Leadbetter, P. (1993) Special Children: meeting the challenge in the primary school (London, Cassel). 8. Mittler, P. (1995) Special needs education: an international perspective. British Journal of Special Education. 22 (3), pp. 105-108. 9. UNESCO (1995) Review of the Present Situation in Special Needs Education (Paris, UNESCO). 10. Wang, M. (1995) Serving students with special needs: equity and access, Prospects, 25, pp. 287-297. 11. Galloway, D. and Goodwin, C. (1987) The education of disturbing children: pupils with learning and adjustment difficulties. Longman. 12. Lane, K., Wehby, J.H., Little, M., Cooley, C. (2005) - Academic, Social, and Behavioral Profiles of Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders Educated in Self-contained Classrooms and Self-contained Schools: Part I-are They More Alike Than Different? Behavioral Disorders. Volume 30 (4). Retrieved on March 13, 2011 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5035540745 13. Frey, K., Hirschstein , M., Guzzo, B. (2000) Second Step: Preventing Aggression by Promoting Social Competence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Volume 8. Issue 2. Retrieved on March 13, 2011 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001750228. 14. Gresham, F. et al (2004) Social Skills Training for Children and Youth with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders: Validity Considerations and Future Directions. Behavioral Disorders. Volume 30. Issue 1. Retrieved on 13 March 2011 from http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5035543771. 15. Ziontis, P., Ziontis, L., and Simpson, R. (2002) Emotional and behavioral problems: a handbook for understanding and handling students. Corwin Press. 16. Rogers, B. (2006) Cracking the Hard Class. Paul Chapman, 2006. 17. Visser et al (2002) Inclusion for the difficult to include. Support for Learning. Volume 17, Issue 1, pp. 23-26. 18. Watkins and Wagner (2000) Improving School Behavior. SAGE. 19. Wearmouth, J., Glynn, T., Berryman, M. (2005) Perspectives on student behaviour in schools: exploring theory and developing practice. Routledge. 20. Daniels, H., Cole, T. (2002) The Development of Provision for Young People with Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties: An Activity Theory Analysis. Oxford Review of Education. Vol. 28, No 2/3 June – September, 2002, pp. 311-329. 21. Audit Comission (1996) Misspent Youth: Young People and Crime. London: HMSO. 22. Boucher, R. (1999) Students in Discord: Adolescents with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 23. Bentley, R. (1998) Learning Beyond the Classroom: Education for a Changing World. London: Routledge. 24. Cole et al (1998) Effective Schooling for Pupils with Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties. London: David Fulton Publishers. 25. Castle, F. and Parsons, C. (1997) Disruptive Behavior and Exclusions from Schools. Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties, 2,3, pp. 4-11. 26. Department for Education and Employment (1997) Excellence for All Children. Cm 3785. London: HMSO. 27. Department for Education and Employment (1999) Social Inclusion: Pupil Support. London: HMSO. 28. Hayden, C. (1997) Children Excluded from Primary School: Debates, Evidence, Responses. Buckingham: Open University Press. 29. OFSTED (1999) Principles into Practice: effective education with pupils with EBD. HMI Report. London: OFSTED. 30. Osler, A. and Hill, J. (1999) Exclusion from school and racial equality: examination of government proposals in the light of recent research evidence. Cambridge Journal of Education, 29, 1, pp. 23-62. 31. Social Services Inspectorate/OFSTED (1995) Education of Children who are Lokked After by Local Authorities. London: Department of Health. 32. Wilson, S.J., and Lipsey, M.J. (2007). Effectiveness of school-based intervention programs on aggressive behavior: Update of a meta-analysis. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(Suppl. 2), S130-S143 33. Wilcox, H.C., Kellam, S.G., Brown, C.H., Poduska, J.M., Ialongo, N.S., Wang, W., and Anthony, J.C. (2008). The impact of two universal randomized first and second grade classroom interventions on young adult suicide ideation and attempts. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 95(Suppl. 1), pp. 60-73. Read More