Elementary school students with learning disablities - Essay Example

What are the Outcomes of Elementary School with LearningDisabilites in the Inclusive room Table of Contents Topic Page # Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Literature Review 3 Inclusion 3 Social Outcomes of Inclusion 6 Teacher Acceptance 6 Social Skills 8 Independence 9 Assertiveness 10 Social Sensitivity 12 Social Problem-Solving Skills 14 Summary of Literature Review 15 Implications of future research 17 Null hypothesis 17 1 Abstract This paper takes a look at the views of a number of theorists on their assessments and analysis of the feasibility and possible outcomes of placing disabled children in mainstream classrooms. Additionally, it will highlight the holistic view of what must be done to assimilate both groups into one cohesive environment, so the experience is beneficial to all concerned. Of course, one enters into the inclusion controversy, being fully cognizant that development issues will influence and dictate curriculum adjustments, if not overall changes. We will take a look at how the process, though formidable, can be structured to minimize shortcomings, without marginalizing the desired outcomes. 2 Introduction We are witnessing a situation in education which is not new, but revolutionary, because we are teaching teachers how to accommodate a dual role in the classroom. The role of the skilled teacher in the inclusion setting is to make all students feel as if those sometimes glaring differences between the handicap child and the non-disabled child does not exist. Moreover, to make every child in the classroom feel, that they are all equally important. The tone which is established in the classroom, and the manner in which the students will interact as peers, are solely dependent on the tone which the teacher establishes and works diligently to maintain. Of course, the teacher is not alone in her quest to mold these young people into socially sensitive and functional individuals, a considerable amount of the responsibility also rests with the parents of these students. There must be continued dialogue between parents and teachers in the establishment of social cues. If in many cases, ambiguities might present themselves, due in some instances to cultural or racial differences, it is important that these actors collaborate to establish common ground, which will enable the curriculum and classroom decorum, to function free of conflict. Both the disabled child and the non-disabled child in the elementary school setting are prone to bring both strengths and weaknesses to the table. The experienced teacher must play to all of their strengths, and develop strategies to weed out these developmental weaknesses. Of course, there are specific developmental issues which are associated with this age group and it is incumbent upon the experienced professional teacher to structure her strategies to accomplish these goals for each student in her charge. Consequently, inclusion is presented to achieve the maximum social benefit attainable. 3 Literature Review Inclusion Heiman and Margalit found that placing upper elementary children with mild mental retardation in inclusive classrooms seemed to decrease their lonliness and depression, and helped them to improve their social skills. Benefits of inclusive sessions for no disabled students also have been established, such as increases in non disabled students self worth, understandings of others feelings, and acceptance of others who are different (Snell & Brown; Staub & Peck, 1994/1995). Teachers and parents of both general and special education students in inclusive classrooms report similar perceptions (Lieber et al., 1998; Peck, Carlson & Helmsetter 1992; Tichenor, Heons, & Piechura- Couture, 2000). Peer interactions have been found to be more frequent in inclusive settings than self contained special education settings (Guralnik et a;., 1995). Research clearly indicates, however, that the quality of these interactions is not always positive and that some, if not mist children with disabilities do experience social isolation in inclusive settings. Regrettably, when children with and without disabilities are together in a self contained classroom, the general education students can be less tolerant of the lower level of skill development displayed by different abled peers. Conversely, children with special needs may fail to grasp social concepts because of ridicule from their non disabled peers, thus creating a "catch-22" situation. It appears, then, that teaching socially competent peers to initiate prosocial interactions is an important factor in inclusion classrooms. One study compare the effects of three different intervention approaches on social competence for preschoolers with 4 disabilities, the greatest and most sustained affect was found when typically developing peers were taught to initiate positive interactions with the children who had disabilities (Odom et al.,1999). These findings are congruent with Vygotsky's (1986) research supporting student interactions with classmates in roles of social learners. In inclusive early childhood classrooms, young children who are not disabled may not immediately recognize those differences that make the child with disabilities unique, particularly when the disabilities are cognitive in nature.However, maturation, combined with ongoing social experiences in the classroom, eventually will enable most children to distinguish differences between children who are not disabled and those who are. As they grow older, even children with disabilities may view themselves as less competent in both academic and social areas (Tapasak & Walther-Thomas 1999), some of these experiences occur in school settings, the classroom teacher becomes a primary force in determining how children in inclusive settings view themselves and their peer relationships (Lieber et al.,1988). Educators and researcher alike offer ample evidence supporting the importance of social competence for a productive, successful life. The noted theorist Lev Vygotsky (1978) stressed the importance of social interactions for overall cognitive development, and view learning as a social process. In the last decade, studies have linked social skills to resiliency (Bernard, 1991; Taylor,1991), academic performance(Cartledge & milburn, 1995; Masten & Coatworth, 1998; Pelligrini & Glickman, 1991; Wang, Haertel, & Walburg, 1994), and job success (Elksnin & Elksnin, 1991; Hanger, Rogan & Murphy, 1992). Conversely, social skills deficits in children have been linked to delinquency, school drop out, and substance abuse in adolescence (Green et al.,1999; Parker & Asher, 5 1987), and are considered the single best predictor of mental health problems in adulthood (Cowen, Pederson, Barbigian, Izzo, & Trost, 1973; Strain & Odom, 1986). Garrett and Kelly (2000), believe that "At all grade levels, social participation skills are legitimate and valued components of the social studies curriculum, in inclusive settings, they need particular attention. The current emphasis in inclusive classrooms presupposes all learners abilities to demonstrate basic and appropriate social skills. Therefore, the ability to promote social competence in inclusive settings is a critical teacher competency for a developmentally appropriate early childhood progtam"(Garrett, et al 2000). The 6-8 age span is considered a critical period for social development (Dodge, Jablon, & Beckett, 1994, Flavell, 1977). In addition to experiencing a "cognitive shift" (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997), children in the age period are motivated to learn social skills because they want to "fit in" at school and are forming their first friendships. Furthermore, negative behavior patterns have not yet become entrenched. As children adjust to the demands of the social environment in an academic contest (school), peer relationships assume greater importance and they follow the behavior models of adults and peers around them (Bandura, 1977, Vygotsky, 1978, 1986). According to Erikson's psychosocial theory (1963) children at this age want to pursue goals and feel a sense of accomplishment. To prevent feelings of inadequacy and inferiority, they must feel successful and have their ideas and accomplishments recognized. Erickson theorized that if children's potential abilities are not evoked and nurtured during the elementary school age years, their development might, at best, be delayed. 6 Social Outcomes of Inclusion It is now standard education policy in school districts across the United States to Include students with mild and moderate disabilities in general education classes. It was federally mandated by the individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and its predecessors as far back as 1975 (e.g. The Education For All Handicapped Children Act, 1975, 1986). Inclusion has achieved greater acceptance, and with each revision of the IDEA (1991, 1997), the "least restrictive environment" clause has been more liberally interpreted. Proponents of inclusion have maintained that one of the central benefits of inclusion for all students is the social integration of children with disabilities (Stainback, Stainback & Forest, 1989). Studies examining social outcomes in inclusive classfooms, however, have varying results. A considerable body of research points to unfavorable outcomes for students with disabilities. Wingle and DeMoulin (1999), for example, found that self concept in kindergarten to third grade students with LD or MR was negatively correlated with the amount of time spent in general education classrooms, especially among boys. Other studies have found that studentgs with disabilities were less liked by their peers, were frequently rejected (Stone & LeGreca, 1990; Vaughn, Elbaum, & Schumm, 1996), had fewer friends than non-disabled students(Guralnick, Gottman & Hammond, 1995; Guralnick & Groom, 1988; Margalot, 1994), and were socially isolated in mainstreamed classrooms (Faught, Balleweg, Crow & VandenPol,1983; Peterson,1982). Teacher Acceptance According to Manning (2000), "Most children readily perceive teacher's negative 7 or uneasy feelings about differences, whether of language, skin color, cultural mannerisms, or disabilities"(Manning 2000) "Possessing an understanding of culturally influenced behaviors helps a teacher distinguish between their student's differences and deficiencies in social skills. Children from diverse backgrounds may exhibit culturally biased behaviors that might be misinterpreted by mainstream peers and adults. These peers and adults may, in turn, view students exhibiting such behaviors as functioning inappropriately or unsuccessfully within the school environment"(Cartledge & Milburn, 1995; Rivera & Rogers-Adkinson, 1997). Good teachers recognize that the individual differences, such as ability and personality, that make every child unique exist across cultures and disabilities"(Manning, 2000; Okagaki & Diamond, 2000). The teachers understanding and appreciation of individual and cultural differences need to be consistently displayedm and all children need opportunities to model and acquire the same traits"(Putnam,1993). A social competence is enhanced when teachers recognize the relationship between children's social behaviors and interaction patterns at home. It is of critical importance that parents collaborate with school personnel to help children develop socially. When teachers and parents agree on when to praise, ignore, or focus attention in certain behaviors, the social skills of all children improve(Molina, Smith, McIlwain & Sherm 1997) [cited in Evans Axelrod & Sapia 2000]. "Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs is guided from a constructivist orientation, whereas practices in special education are typically grounded in behavioral theory. Both perspectives are supported by sound qualitative and 8 quantitative research. The contention of these authors, in agreement with Duncan, Kemple and Smith (2000), is that for inclusion to be successful; early childhood and special educators must reconcile this inherent difference. Behavioral strategies which have proven effective with children with special needs would be appropriate for early childhood classrooms with a context of active and meaningful listening. Likewise developmentally appropriate practice principles can be used by special education teachers in early childhood programs while selecting, teaching and using methods in which they have been trained, including explicit instruction, shaping and reinforcement. All teachers can recognize the importance of social development in educating the whole child, and be strong advocates for including social goals in Individualized Education Programs (IEP's). All teachers can realize the powerful role of modeling and respect individual appropriateness. What maybe appropriate for a typically developing child may not be effective with a child with disabilities. Above all, the needs best interests of the individual child should reign(Johnson, Ironsmith, Snow & Poteat, 2000). Social Skills Social competence can be described as the "ability of young children to successfully and appropriately select and carry out their interpersonal goals"(Guralink 1990 p.4). Under this topic we will explore five general areas of social competence in the context of an inclusive primary classroom; Independence, Assertiveness, Social Sensitivity, friendship building, and Social problem solving. Summings & Hagerty, 1977 assert that, "these areas have developmental importance during the early elementary years and are particularly relevant in an inclusion setting. Although not designed as a comprehensive framework for curriculum, discussion encompasses the social skills 9 regarded as most important by children's teachers"(Cummings et al,. 1997). Independence Certainly a major goal of teaching good social skills is to assist children in learning to assume responsibility for themselves and for their own behavior. Although indepence is not considered an interpersonal goal, it is basic to social development, (Erickson, 1963). From an Erickson perspective, children in the elementary years need to be given opportunities to accomplish tasks on their own in order to develop a sense of "industry versus inferiority"(Erickson 1963). To function successfully, children must learn to direct their own activities, make decisions, and follow through on their own plans. In addition they must learn to focus their attention and continue their own activities independently when others are near. Finally, they must learn to accept and manage the consequences of the behavioral choices they make. Children who have mental disabilities pose additional challenges because they tend to be persistent in having their own way. Independence can become counter productive if not balanced by social sensitivity. "Often this behavior may be due less to non compliance and more to simple behavioral preservation, a characteristic not uncommon in children with mental retardation"(Taras, Matson & Leary, 1988; Whitman, 1987). In these cases educators should try to avoid blatant confrontations (thus teaching that confrontations can be avoided), but should not just give up and completely "give in" to the child's demands. Rather, they need to work towards a compromise. Such compromises are part and parcel of today's classrooms, and they require teachers to be 10 more flexible and less authoritarian. At the same time, students learn that compromises do not have to be unpleasant. Social learning theorists maintain that "self-evaluation is more powerful than external rewards or punishments in supporting self-regulation, when children develop and meet their own performance standards, they reward reward themselves with feeling of self-efficiency"( Bronson 2000). Okagaki and Diamond (2000) caution, however, that the curriculum should not overemphasize individual work, but also include goals of interdependence and collaboration, which tend to be more highly valued in non-European American cultures. Thus, children can set personal goals for cooperative skills during group work, and group goals for cooperative assignments. Applying the Piagetian adage, "never do anything for a child that he (she) can learn to do for themselves, is often easier said than done, particularly with young children who have disabilities. However, giving children opportunities to fail, known as the "dignity of risk", is an important part of living. Helping a child with disabilities to learn from such failure is a vital part of learning. Although an essential skill, independence is sometimes a painful skill to develop"(Perske 1972). As children learn to do more things for themselves, alone or with the help of a peer (rather than a teacher), their self-esteem is enhanced, and then the teacher has more time to observe, interact, guide and support. Assertiveness Assertiveness skills are some of the most essential, yet difficult, social skills to teach, for a number of reasons. Most children see an extremely wide range of role models in this area, and are often unsure of the line between compliance and assertion or between assertion and aggression. The distinctions may be unclear, depending on the situation, 11 and because of society's conflicting values and assertive behaviors. For example, speaking up for one's rights may be highly esteemed by some people, particularly in some situations, but considered highly inappropriate and even offensive by others. 'Teachers and parents can help children learn to distinguish between appropriately asserting themselves and dominating others to get their way, or resorting to violence at one extreme and being exploited and ignored at the other. Moore, Cartledge, & Heckaman, 1994 argue that, "In some cases, a structured approach in which specific behaviors are targeted for intervention, in which specific behaviors are targeted, may decrease inappropriate behaviors as wel as increase approproiate behaviors"(Moore et al., 1994). The learning of assertiveness skills is well-suited for strategic intervention through direct teaching and modeling during "teachable moments". "Children with limited verbal skills often require more intensive work in language development in order to learn to assert themselves appropriately" (Johnson et al., 2000) Cultural differences are an important consideration in understanding assertiveness behaviors. For example, Hispanic American, Native American , and Asian American children may be taught to be passive at home. Many African American children, however, are often raised to be very assertive and therefore may be described as aggressive"(Rivera & Rogers-Adkinson, 1997) In a different vein, assertiveness skills are especially needed to help children respond in dangerous situations. Many teachers are expected to teach children to protect themselves from potential harm. For example, asserting the right to run away or shout to get another's attention ( or both) when confronted by a stranger is not only advisable, it is 12 a necessity. Learning these skills can be even more problematic for children with disabilities of the lack some of the cognitive skills required to discern dangerous situations, or the physical ability to flee or seek help. Effective strategies to teach will involve using or designing role play and demonstration situations that are individualized to recognize the needs and possible limitations of the children in the group. Extensive research shows that skills learning is maximized when the skills are explicitly taught, discussed, and frequently practiced in a variety of situations and contexts"(Cummings & Hagerty, 1997; Wang, Haertel & Walberg, 1994) Social Sensitivity It is important for all children, regardless of their functioning level, to learn how to interpret and understand the needs and feelings of other people and to develop respectful behavior towards them. In early childhood, one of the first such lessons involves the concept of sharing. Children are expected to share equipment, experiences, and the attention of other people. While not easy for any child, sharing can be particularly difficult for a child with disabilities. Because children with disabilities often receive a great deal of attention at home, they may expect the same level of attention in the classroom. "Young children are often very astute in learning certain social sues. For example, children readily hold hands upon being instructed to do so, However, children with certain disorders (such as autism) may dislike physical contact, and so often find it difficult to participate in activities that require physical contact"(Mastropien & Scruggs, 2000). Most fundamentally, the classroom teacher needs to create an environment that 13 rewards interest in others, cooperation, collaboration, and acts of simple kindness. Regularly communicating expectations of mutual caring and respect (e;g;. we are a community where people care about each other") at the beginning of the school year does much to promote friendships and prevent peer rejection"(Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Lickona, 1992) , helping develop a group identity through rituals or traditions is a very effective way for teachers to build cohesion. Perceptive teachers will carefully observe students at work and play to target specific skill behaviors that individual children need to improve upon. Vygotsky's (1978) concept of "Scaffolding" then can be used effectively to interact with each child at a level within his or her "zone" of proximal development"(Vygotsky), at one end of the zone, the teacher helps the child perform the skill through a structured environment with teacher talk, modeling or props. The teacher acts as a scaffold, or support to help move the student from one end of the zone to the other, wherein the student can perform the skill without assistance. Observation and diagnosis are important in this process so that teachers can build on those skills that students already have developed"(Kauchak & Eggen, 1998). Children with disabilities in the regular classroom tend to have more difficulty building friendships, simply because they nay have learned that other children can hurt them. Children's behavior is guided by their interpretation of social cues based on prior experiences. Thus, interventions that address children's social goals may be more effective than teaching only social skills. When children exhibit such problems at young ages, intervention is critical to prevent such thought patterns from becoming ingrained and more stabilized (Erdley & Asher 1999). 14 "Teachers need to provide many opportunities for children to practice their friendship building skills.Activities that allow children to discover shared interests provide fertile soil for cultivating friendships. Another effective strategy to help build friendships is "partening" or a "peer buddy" approach, in which a typically developing child interacts with a child with a disability in ongoing academic and social activities across the school day" (Odom et al., 1999, Snell & Brown, 2000). All children with disabilities need opportunities to assume leadership roles in the classroom, however minor. They might for example, distribute or collect materials, lead morning exercises, inspect finished products for completion, or even help correct work (given a model to follow). This responsibility reinforces their own self-perception and the perception of other students that they are competent, contrivuting members of the group"( Lewis & Doorlag, 1999; Smith, Polloway, Patton & Dowdy, 1988). Social problem-solving skills Perhaps no where in the curriculum is it more important for children to learn the benefit of problem-solving than in social situations. Social problem solving requires not only social skills, but also higher order thinking skills, auch as analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and metacognitive strategies. Children learn to assess a social situation, select an appropriate skill and use it, then determine the skill's effectiveness as a solution. With further maturation and experience, most children can learn to monitor their own behavior and modify the problem-solving strategies they are using when necessary (Bronson, 2000) Children as young a preschoolers can learn to use various strategies to successfully solve social problems, including peer mediation and conflict resolution(Elksnis & 15 Elksnin, 1998; Kreidler, 1999). In some cases, other children with less severe disabilities (e.g. those who are learning disabled or communicatively challenged) may be capable of taking leadership roles in this arena. Because these children typically do not cause problems with other children, they may be seen an more "neutral", and therefore less biased as serving as mediators. When children are instructed, allowed, and encouraged to solve social problems for themselves, they gain a greater sense of personal control over their environment. They become better prepared to deal with the future challenges that life inevitably holds. The goal is for all children to develop the mindset of "I can handle my problems, even when things do not go as I want, I can find another way"(Dodge, Jablon & Bickart, 1994). Basic skills training will always be necessary for all young children, the levels of successful acquisition will vary. Certainly, many children with disabilities form strong meaningful relationships and have social skills equal too or better than, some of their peers without disabilities. However, some children with special needs(particularly those with mental retardation) may fail to acquire skills through simple modeling. These children require "over-learning to an extent that may seem redundant to most regular educators and non disabled students(Berne-Smith, Ittenbach & Patton,1998) Summary of Literature Review The common thread which runs through the assessments and analysis of all the theorists presented in the Literature Review is that the inclusion of disabled students into the mainstream classroom must always be accompanied by additional and at times supplemental considerations of their conditions, in order to affect any type of reasonable outcome. These additions and supplements must always encompass a holistic concept, 16 because as the mainstream child will inevitably be experiencing adjustments in accordance with his/her natural development, they will now be required to adjust to peers, who might possess multiple adjustment complications. Moreover, the mainstream children may feel that their skills are superior to those of their disabled classmates, which might foster animosity from the mainstream students towards their peer, and it might create a feeling of inferiority among the disabled students. It was commonly projected in the Literature review that this perceived inequity can be mitigated, if the teacher possesses the proper training, skills, and a positive attitude. The Literature Review clearly points out that the perceptions as well as the intuitive instincts of children are very keen, and if they sense an adverse attitude, particularly from the teacher, towards any particular student or type of student, then they are prone to react towards that person or group of persons, with a less than positive attitude. The Literature Review also points out that inclusion has far reaching positive effects, and the disabled child has the capacity (except in the instances of autism and severe mental retardation), given credence to their disability, they have the capacity to acquire all of the necessary skills needed to function in the mainstream classroom. The theorists in the Literature Review did not pale in stressing the reinforcing roles which adults (parents and teachers) must collaborate molding the appropriate enviornment. Just as all individuals need to have a feel for independence, the disabled child must be afforded the opportunity, albeit difficult at times, he/she must forge forward in there own merits. One recognizes that this will inevitably result in some false starts, but the positive reinforcement to try, must be emphasized by adult models, and peers aw well. On the other hand, to enable the disabled child to develop and advance 17 their social development skills, they must also be encouraged to participate in interdependent group activities. These group activities will teach them the additional personal skills of assertiveness; which are crucial for survival and the establishment of self worth. Also, social problem solving skills are essential, because they will be needed for level of success in communicating and mingling with others. Implications For Future Research This research albeit speaks to the Social outcomes of elementary school students with learning disabilities in the inclusive classroom, the material addresses a general population, and my hypothesis is, other variables are at work which may impact or influence varying levels of success. For example in the Literature review, it made mention of the inherent differences which one might be prone to find when scrutinizing aspect of family differences , among ethnic groups. As a consequence, I am curious to find out if the levels of outcome would vary among different ethnic groups, and whether any of the aspects of inclusion for the disabled would have to be adjusted to accommodate successful levels of success. Null hypothesis Table 1: Comparison of Disabled students' Perception of Devas and Ujjain District of Education District N Mean Standard Deviation t Devas Male 19 17.32 2.79 0,2707 Female 16 18.5 1.89 Ujjain Male 21 19.33 1.24 0.2218 Female 14 18.5 1.56 Devas total 35 17.86 2.49 0.1927 Ujjain total 35 19.00 1.24 On the basis of the objectives of the study, hypotheses were formulated to find out if there were significant differences between the perceptions of males and females in the student group about education of the disabled in Devas and Ujjain districts. A hypothesis was also formulated to find out if there was a significant difference in the perceptions of students of two districts about education of disabled children.(Soni) Table 1 presents mean, standard deviation and t-value regarding disabled student's perceptions about their education in Devas and Ujjain districts. The null hypothesis tested here is: There is no significant difference between the perceptions of disabled boys and girls about their education in Devas district is not rejected, a t-value comparing mean scores of boys and girls is not significant. Similarily the null hypothesis: there is no significant difference between the perceptions of disabled boys and girls about their education in Ujjain district is not rejected, as the t-value for this hypothesis is not significant. The null hypothesis: there is no significant difference between the perceptions of disabled students about their education in Devas and Ujjain districts is also not rejected for the same reason, i.e., t-value comparing mean scores of the students of two districts is not significant. Works Cited Bernard, B. (1991), Fostering Resiliency in Kids. Protective Focus in the Family School, and Community: Portland, OR, Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory Bernie-Smith, M., Itlenbach, R., & Patton, J., (1998) Mental retardation (5th ed) Upper Saddle River, NJ; Merrill, Prentice Hall Brendekamp, S., & Copple, C., (Eds) (1997), Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs (Rev ed) Washington, D. C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children Bronson, M. B., (2000) Recognizing and Supporting the development of self regulation in young children. Young Children 55 (2), 33-37 Cartledge, G & Milburn, J. F., (Eds) (1995) teaching social skills to children and youth, Boston; Allyn & Bacon. Cowen, E. L., Pederson, A., Barbigian, H., Izzo, L. D. & Trot, M. A., (1973) Long-term follow-up of early detedted vulnerable children. Journal of Consulting and clinical psychology 41, 438446 Cummings, C., & Hagerty, K. P. (1997) Raising healthy children. Educational Leadership, 54 (8), 28-30 Dodge, D. T., Jablon, J. R., & Bickart, T. S., (1994) constructing curriculum for the primary grades; Washington, D. C. teaching Strategies Duncan, D. T., Kemple, K. M., & Smith, T. M., (2000) Reinforcement in developmentally appropriate early childhood classrooms. Childhood education, 76, 194 - 203 Erdley, C. A., & Asher, S. A., (1999), A social goals perspective on children's social competence. Journal of Emotional Behavior Disorders, 7 (3), 156-167 Elksnin & Elksnin, N., (1998) Teaching social skills to children with learning and behavior problems. Intervention in school clinic, 33 (3), 131-140 Erikson, E,. (1963) childhood and society, New York; Norton Evans, S. W., Axelrod, J.L., & Sapia, J. K., (2000) Effective school-based mental health interventions. Advancing the social skills paradigm. Journal of school health, 70 (5), 191-194 Greene, R. W., Biedermann, J., Fruaone, S., Wilens, T., Mick, E., & Blier, H. K., (1999) Further validatioin of social impairment as a predictor of substance abuse disorders. Findings from a sample of siblings of boys with and without ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 349-354 Guralnick, M. J., Gottman, S. M., & Hammond, M. A., (1995) Effects of Social Settingon the friendship formation of young children differing in development status. Journal of Applied Development Psychology, 17, 625-651 Hagner, T., Rogan, P., & Murphy, S. T., (1992) facilitating natural supports in the Workplace. Strategies for support consultations; Journal of Rehabilitation 58, 29-34 Herman, T., & margalit, M., (1998), Lonliness, depression, and social skills among students with mild mental retardation in different educational settings. Journal of special education 32, (3), 154-163 Johnson, C., Ironsmith, M., Snow, C. W. & Poteat, G. M. (2000), Peer acceptance and social adjustment in preschool and kindergarten. Early childhood education Journal 27 (4), 207212 Kouchak, D. P., & Eggen, P. D., (1998) Learning and teaching research based methods (3Ed ) Boston; Allyn & Bacon Kreidler, W. J., (1999) Early childhood adventures in peacemaking. Cambridge, MA; Educators for special responsibility and work/family Directions Lewis, R., & Doirlag, D., (1999), teaching special students in general education classrooms (5th Ed) Columbus OH, Merrill Lickona, T., (1992) educating for character. How our schools can teach respect and responsibility, New York, Bantam Lieber, J., Capell, K., Sandall, S., Wolfberg, P., Horn, E., * Beckman, P., (1998) Inclusive preschool programs. Teachers beliefs and Practices. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13, 87-105 Mastern, A., & Coatworth, J. (1998) the development of competence infavorable and unfavorable environments. Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205-220 Mastropien, M., & Scruggs, T., (2000) The inclusive classroom. Strategies for effective instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Merrill, Prentice-Hall Moore, R. J., Cartledge, G., I Heckman, K., (1994) The effects of social skills instruction and self monitoring on game - related behaviors of adolescents with emotional or behavior disorders. Behavioral Disorders. 20, 253-266 Manning, M. L., (2000) Understand diversity, accepting others realities and directions. Educational horizons, 78 (2) 77-79 Odom, S. L., McConnell, S. R., McEvoy, M. A., Peterson. C, Ostrosky, N., Chandler, L., Spocuzza, R. J., Skellenger, A., Creighton, M., & Fazza, P. C., (1999) Relative effects of interventions supporting the social competence of young children with disabilities. Topic in Early childhood special education, 19 (2) 75-91 Okagki, L., & Diamond, K. C., (2000), Responding to cultural and linguistic differences In the belief and practices of families with young children Young children 55 (3), 74- 80 Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R., (1987) Peer relations and later personal adjustment; are low accepted children at risk Psychological Bulletin 102, 357-389 Peck, C., Carlson, P., & Helmstetter, E.,(1992) Parent and teachers perceptions of outcomes for typically developing children enrolled in targeted early childhood programs; Journals of early intervention 16, 53-63 Pelligrini, A. D., & Glickman, C. D., (1991) Measuring Kindegarten's social competence; Eric Digest, IL. EPC clearinghouse on elementary and early childhood education Putnam, J., (1993) Cooperative learning and strategies for inclusion; celebrating diversity in the classroom. In J. Putnam (Ed) Children Youth and Change; sociocultural perspectives (pp. 15-40) Baltimore; Paul H. Brooks Rivera. B. D., & Rogers-Adkinson, D. (1977), culturally sensitive interventions; social skills training with children and parents from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds Intervention in school and clinic, 33 (2), 75-80 Strain, P. S., & Odom, S. L., (1986) Peer social initiations; effective interventions for social skills development of exceptional children. Exceptional children, 52, 542-551 Soni. R. B. L. Disabled Students Perceptions about the education, Retrieved on line on April 19, 2007, from www.ncert.nic.in Tapasak, R., & Walther-Thomas, C., (1999) evaluation of first year inclusion program, Student perception and classroom performance. Remedial and special education, 20, 216-225 Taylor, A. R., (1991) Social competence and early school transition; Risk and protective factors for African-American children. Education and urban society, 24 (1), 15-26 Vygotsky, L., (1978) mind in society. The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press Vygotsky, L., (1986) Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA. MIT Press Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J., (1994) What helps students learn Educational Leadership, 51 74-79. Whitman, T., (1987) Self instruction, and individual differences, and mental retardation. American Journal of Mental deficiency, 92, 213-223 Read More