Byzantine and Islamic systems - Essay Example

Byzantine and Islamic systems Introduction The Byzantine and Islamic systems pose a challenge in the attempt to ify them aseither unique or adaptations of previous systems, considering that both systems applied a combination of both previous adaptations and unique elements that they had devised for themselves. While previous adaptations played a major role in shaping the conflict that occurred between the Byzantine and Islamic empires, they were insufficient to operate on their own due to the consistent changes and dynamics that had occurred in the empires over time (Miller, 2002 n.p.). Therefore, it was inevitable for both systems to adapt a unique and current tactics and strategies that would not suffice for the intended dominance and supremacy wars. The Byzantine system borrowed more from the already collapsed Roman Empire of the 4th century, since they were more or less founded on similar principles (Watson, 2010 p87). Similarly, the Islamic systems also borrowed very much from the Huns, who were ancient Muslims who also had engaged in fights with the earlier Roman opponents, only that there was an addition of more Islam zeal during this period (Esposito, 1988 p37). Thus, it is apparent that both systems adapted strategies that would enable them defeat their opponents, which included forging ties with the neighboring empires to reinforce their might. Nevertheless, through academic research, this explorative paper concluded that both the Byzantine Empire and Islamic System had military, cultural and economic force. However, the analysis found that the Islamic empire had a religious force behind their push, which served to compensate for the lack of a sophisticated administrative system, like the one that the Byzantine Empire had already put in place. Military within Byzantine Empire was made up of a large force, which did not reduce despite several incursions from the Muslims, owing to the continued growth of the population within the Byzantine Empire (Watson, 2010 p82). Byzantine Empire Military managed to maintain a huge force starting the 10th century through the 12th century, although the sufficient resources required to create such large armies and enhance their efficiency had dwindled over time, making it impossible for the empire to establish a large efficient national army. The strength of the Byzantine Empire Military was based on the establishment of a sophisticated administrative system through the 10th and the 11th century, referred to as the theme system (Haldon, 2002 p12). This system divided the whole Byzantine Empire into several administrative units, which were then able to consolidate their authority over the territory they manned, at the expense of the establishment of large national army, which would require much resources and logistical planning and strategies. The thematic system was applied as an effective solution tool, to counter the Islamic army attacks, which were being experienced from different sides of the Byzantine Empire, making it possible for rapid response to the attacks, as opposed to the large national military response, which would be delayed by the logistical and the resource requirements (Miller, 2002 n.p.). The essence of the thematic military strategy applied by the Byzantine Empire, was to maintain a full time field presence of the troops in different regions of the empire that were prone to attacks, something that would not be efficient, through the use of a large national army (Esposito, 1988 p42). Military within Islamic System was based on a different system, which was an element of the previous adaptations from the Huns, who were also involved in conflicts with the earlier Roman Empire. The ‘hit and run’ tactic was the one the Muslim system mostly applied in their assault against the Byzantine Empire, which was perpetually threatened from various quarters. However, while the Muslim system borrowed the tactic from the Huns, who had previously engaged in a series of battle with the Roman Empire, they invoked the religious zeal that enabled them to defeat the Byzantine Empire severally (Watson, 2010 p84). The religious invocations provided the basis for organization and motivation of the Muslim armies, who designated their war against other territories as either war for opening, or war for victory. These designations were used to differentiate the strategies and the artillery that would be involved in a certain war, considering that the strategies for a war for opening, was different from those of a war for victory (Esposito, 1988 p51). These are the strategies that enabled the Muslims to register several incursions against the Byzantine Empire, with some of the incursions emerging as victorious, while others were just assaults to destabilize the empire and keep it from reorganizing and strategizing to attack the Muslims. Islam as a religion further provided the basis for community identity and the legitimacy of assaults, which the rulers applied as a means of their expansion conquests (Miller, 2002 n.p.). Muhammad was considered both a political leader and a messenger of God, thus applied both the political and the religious combinations to engage in expansion conquests, in the name of establishing the authority of God in the conquered territories. Therefore, more than anything else, religion served as the major basis for the Muslim systems conquests and territorial conflicts (Haldon, 2002 p7). The Muslim army also applied the withdrawal and ambush tactics, which enabled it to defeat the Byzantine Empire, as was the case in the Battle of Manzikert. Culture within the Byzantine Empire was yet another fundamental force that was applied in the conflicts with the Islamic systems. The empire had established a culture of direct relationship between the people and the ruler, making the ruler the ultimate symbol of authority (Esposito, 1988 p63). This established culture of authority-to-subject relationship was very instrumental in the formulation of the armies and the consolidation of the conquered territories, since the authority of the ruler was invoked to demand the involvement of men in the Byzantine Empire Military. It is through such direct relationships that the thematic system was made possible, since it entailed the organization of different regions into armies, and thus enhancing the fulltime presence of the military in the areas of the empire that were under constant threat (Watson, 2010 p83). This culture of direct relationship enabled the division of the empire into 25 military districts, for the purpose of the protection of the empire (Miller, 2002 n.p.). The culture and social organization of the Byzantine Empire did not leave any room for the establishment of the aristocrats in the empire, since the social formation of the Byzantine Empire was based on the family formation with the highest level of organization being the village (Esposito, 1988 p67). The fundamental basis of the socio-cultural and political organization was the Orthodox Christianity, which formed the basis of uniting people for a common course, especially the war against territorial aggression (Watson, 2010 p85). Culture within the Islamic system was founded on the politico-religious formation of the society, where the political leaders were also the religious leaders. This cultural formation prepared a fundamental basis for the unity of the Islamic system, considering that both the political and the religious themes were combined to form the basis of territorial assaults and conquest (Miller, 2002 n.p.). Muhammad was both a political and a religious leader, similarly to other rulers of the Muslim empires, an aspect that enabled the society to grant such leaders respect and confer them authority to lead the community in whichever way they deemed appropriate (Esposito, 1988 p59). This formed a major basis for uniting the Muslim nations against their Christian opponents, since religious supremacy and the exertion of the Islamic religious authority formed the major drive for Islamic systems conquest. Therefore, the Islamic culture was tantamount to the Islamic religious belief and practices (Watson, 2010 p88). Economics within the Byzantine Empire played a fundamental role in the prevalence of the territorial conflicts. Trade was the fundamental basis of the prosperity of the empire, especially in the Venice and Genoa cities, which were popular business hubs within the region (Haldon, 2002 p22). The economic prosperity of the empire acted as a force towards conflicts with the Islamic systems, since it enables the Byzantine Empire to acquire the resources that were necessary for the formulation of the military, as well as the provision of the requisite ammunitions and caravans (Esposito, 1988 p44). Additionally, the economic prosperity of the Byzantine Empire was essential for the sustenance of a continuous growth of population, which then meant that there was always enough men to be engaged in the Byzantine Empire military, throughout the 10th and the 11th centuries (Miller, 2002 n.p.). A Byzantine monetary system was present throughout these centuries, which enabled the smooth undertaking of trade, which in turn enhanced economic prosperity and created a fertile ground for thriving of the rulers and the military, due to the ability to acquire the necessary weaponry and other materials required in war (Watson, 2010 p90). Economics within the Islamic system also largely depended on trade, despite the fact that the Islamic system had not initially established a monetary system, and thus largely depended on those of the communities they conquered (Esposito, 1988 p37). Agricultural prosperity and the trade revival of the regions that the Islamic systems conquered was a major goal. The Islamic systems that conquered the Christian empires adopted the cultures of trade from the territories, and worked towards flourishing the trade activities (Miller, 2002 n.p.). Later, the Muslim territories introduced a coinage monetary system, which was an adjustment of the already existing monetary systems, only with an adjustment of dates and inclusion of some Arabic phrases (Haldon, 2002 p28). Even the monetary system in the Islamic system served to deliver religious messages, through the assertions of the religion of Allah and Muhammad in the Islamic coins. Conclusion The conflict between the Byzantine and Islamic systems was a function of various factors, which include the cultural, economic and the military forces. However, the most fundamental factor that acted as the major force for the conflicts between the Byzantine and Islamic systems was the religious factor, informed by the conflicting systems of their different religions. However, while the religious factor played a central role in the exacerbation of the conflicts, religion played a major role in advancing territorial expansion and conquest motives. References Esposito, J. L. (1988). Islam: The Straight Path (1st ed.). New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 37-67. Haldon, John (2002). Byzantium at War: AD 600–1453. Oxford: Osprey. Miller, J. (October 18, 2002). Byzantine and Islamic Codes from the Mediterranean: Transcript of Besim S. Hakim’s presentation to Council IV, Santa Fe, NM. Retrived: November 8, 2013 from http://historiccitiesrules.com/byzantine-and-islamic-codes-from-the-mediterranean/ Watson, A. (2010). The Evolution of International Society. Routledge. pp81-91. Read More