Katznelson Take on White Affirmative Action - Essay Example

Katznelson Take on “White Affirmative Action” The Ira Katznelson, in his book, When Affirmative Action Was White writes about how government programs in the 1930s and 1940s, favored the white race while discriminated against the black race. Katznelson asserts that racial discrimination and oppression took root after the abolition of slavery. In essence, the southern states embarked on an objective, which resulted in formulating racial segregation laws (Katznelson 4). Some New Deal and Fair Deal policies, which were initiated by the U.S. government to help the unemployed and the poor, turned out to be a white affirmative action, in the sense only the white race, benefited from those programs. Katznelson points out that African Americans were legally excluded from government programs such as; unemployment insurance, social security, grants, assistance of elderly and poor. The blacks were segregated through; theological justification, harsh enforcement, economic compulsions, political institutions, social conventions, and racist ideas (Katznelson 5). The age of whiteness was marked by restricting Black Americans from crossing the set social boundaries, and this was implemented by the police state that had the authority. In addition, the author mentions that; although, Europeans and African Americas fought alongside each other at the Second World War, some eastern and southern Europeans, through the white affirmative action, got full rights at the expense of African Americans. This paper discusses the meaning of “white affirmative action” from Katznelson’s point of view, and address how U.S. government policies affect non-white Americans. When Katznelson talks of “white affirmative action”, he refers to the way in which various government programs, which were constituted in the 1930s and 1940s segregated the blacks. The authority of white affirmative action was prescribed in the constitution, society, and peoples’ minds. In his context, when the government programs segregated the blacks, they worked on the opposite direction and favored the whites. Therefore, the government programs became affirmative actions for the white race. White affirmative action was seen when the government used; the Fair Labor Standards Act (1938) and National Labor Relations Act (1935) to formulate worker reform, which would result in getting rid of domestic, as well as, agricultural labor (Katznelson 62). In this manner, Black Americans became segregated in that they could not find employment. The white affirmative action within the U.S. government was propelled by the collaboration that was created between the southern members of Congress and the Democratic Party. At that time, the Democrats were forced to work with the southern members of Congress so that they could give support to their committee assignment and legislative programs (Katznelson 21). The southern representatives nurtured the white affirmative action through secluding African Americans in some legislation (Katznelson 22). For instance, the job categories that were mostly occupied by African Americans such as; maids and farmworkers, were not included in the laws that aimed at; establishing Social Security, forming modern workers unions, regulating working hours, and setting of minimum wages (Katznelson 22). Continuing on, white affirmative action, was practiced by giving local officials who were supporters of segregation, the authority of implementing various laws. Through this, African Americans were mistreated and denied some privileges. Moreover, the act of stopping Congress from introducing anti-discrimination policies on some social welfare programs namely; school lunches, hospital construction grants, and social welfare programs, segregated African Americans, and furthered white affirmative action. The southern members of Congress were against pro-labor legislation, and they resisted the plan of modifying the Fair Labor Standards Act. The National Labor Relations Board limited actions by some unions that were mostly constituted by African American workers (Katznelson 63). Through this, it was impossible for African Americans to improve their standards of living. They suffered in poverty, experienced poor health, and lived in degraded conditions. Contrarily, whites experienced flourished living standards because the government policies favored them, and as a result, they formed the middle class. In the 30s and 40s, a time when Congress members from the South were in control of legislative gateways, decisions on policy that dealt with war work, and welfare were modified numerous times in order to exclude most African Americans and treat them differently. In the period between 1945 and 1955, there was an unprecedented transfer of money by the federal government in support of retired citizens, as well as for the creation of opportunities for ownership of homes, education, job skills, and the formation of small enterprises. These programs together led to a dramatic reshaping of the social structure in the country through the creation of a middle class of Americans that was well schooled, modern, and owned homes. However, this was mainly for the white Americans, instead of giving this money equally, including to the African Americans who were the most affected by the Great Depression (Katznelson 82). During the advent of the New Deal, American politicians started to construct programs for the government that seemed to exclude systematically African Americans. According to Ira Katznelson, the major reason for this was due to the political institutions in the country and their objectives. The Democratic Party leaders were in dire need, for support from Southern leaders in Congress, ostensibly in order to pass the ambitious programs of legislation that they needed (Katznelson 84). Therefore, the whole New Deal coalition was framed as a bargaining agreement between white segregationists and white progressives. Ira Katznelson seeks to show how the leaders from the South sought to utilize their influence to gain control over local projects that were funded by the federal government. The result of this was that, in the South, federal aid turned into a contingent plan for them. In the same instant that the federal government was making funds available for the tools needed to come up with a strong American middle class, Southern political leaders were overseeing a systematic isolation African Americans from public assistance benefits. Affirmative action, therefore, played a critical role in the exacerbation of the chasm in socio-economic terms between the blacks and whites following the end of the Second World War (Katznelson 90). In When Affirmative Action was White, Katznelson also discusses the experiences of black Americans during wartime, as well as the G.I. bill and its discriminatory nature. As white ethnics who were from Southern and Eastern Europe underwent a transformation into American status due to taking part in the Second World War, African Americans went through more segregation as part of the American military. Following the end of the Second World War, the exclusion of African Americans led to them being denied the resources made available by 1944’s Selective Service Readjustment Act since they were not considered to have served in the military. White veterans had the federal government pay for their mortgages, as well as upgrade institutions of education across the US. However, this did not happen for the African Americans. These policies cumulatively led to the increase of the economic gap already present between white and black Americans. In addition, Katznelson also makes an argument that the GI bill, which was an initiative blind to color, led to privilege of an unfair nature for white veterans, especially by turning over the administration of these benefits to the state governments. This ensured that African Americans found it almost impossible to take part, particularly those from the South (Katznelson 81). The GI bill, soon after its passage, adapted to the way of life in the South, which meant segregation in higher education and job ceilings imposed by state officials on African American soldiers returning from war. It also extended to an unwillingness to extend bank loans to African American veterans even the federal government was willing to extend the loans to them. Out of 3,230 loans guaranteed by the G.I. bill for farms, businesses, and homes, in the State of Mississippi in 1947, for instance, the only African American veteran beneficiaries were two (Katznelson 89). The way that African American veterans were treated perpetuated racism that was already a marker for all affairs in a military service that had been segregated for a long time. Members of the Congress from Southern states utilized occupational exclusions and used American federalism to their advantage in making sure that the racial order in their regions would not be overturned by federal policies. Since administration of these benefits for veterans was done at the local level, which saw the assimilation of racial order in the South into the administration of this bill. This unsettling history show, at the time, which public policies were meant to aid the returning veterans to get their lives back on track, most African American veterans were left to fend for themselves. Since this time, the United States society has had to confront the results of a segregated form of affirmative action. Despite the prosperity of the returning white veterans during the capitalism boom of post-war America, the already huge black-white economic divide that had existed in the segregated army only widened (Katznelson 82). After World War I, the U.S. government requested the French to stop commending African American soldiers, in the case that white Americans soldiers were present (Katznelson 84). The same government deterred Japan from pursuing the notion of equality regardless of race. In the military, white officers occupied the senior ranks of command. Those who were assigned commanding duties never commanded white troops. African American troops within the military were tasked with menial and labor duties (Katznelson 84). African American soldiers, who at that time were referred to as “Negro soldiers” complained of being treated like dogs, within the Army of the United States. They experienced segregation in theaters and buses (Katznelson 90). Additionally, white affirmative action within the military transpired when white soldiers could go to luxury resorts situated in Santa Barbra, Lake Placid, Hot Springs, and Miami, while African American soldiers could only go to Hotel Theresa in Harlem and South Side Pershing Hotel in Chicago for their recreation and rest. The GI Bill was legislated to assist war veterans. The bill, in terms of words and sentences, did not directly support white affirmative action. However, it supported white affirmative action through the manner in which it was implemented (Katznelson 127). The Congress supervised the GI Bill, and at the local level, the administrators were individuals supporting segregation. Through this, African American veterans were denied the bill’s benefit, and instead the white veterans benefited (Katznelson 128). Overall, the GI Bill was said to have created a white affirmative action, which enlarged the gap between blacks and whites, in terms of education and economic status (Katznelson 134). When it came to job hunting the United States Employment Service (USES), practice white affirmative action through its white employees. The employees disregarded any skills that African America veterans had, and priority was given to the white race (Katznelson 138). Consequently, blacks had to take jobs with lower skills or those that did not match their skills (Katznelson 139). In conclusion, a number of government policies contributed to the issue of white affirmative action, as Ira Katznelson states in his book. The policies discriminated, segregated, and disadvantaged African Americans. On the other hand, whites greatly benefitted from the U.S. government programs of the 1930s and 1940s. In particular, southern members of Congress in the United States, pioneered, campaigned, and formulated legislation that aimed at ensuring that African Americans do not enjoy civil rights. In this respect, the U.S. government oppressed African Americans while promoted “white affirmative action”. Work Cited Katznelson, Ira. When Affirmative Action Was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America. New York: W.W. Norton, 2005. Print. Read More