A History of World Societies - Assignment Example

Indo-European Languages, Chinese Legalism, Confucius, Athenian Polis and Early Christianity 1) The Indo-European language group in the ancient world and the historical importance of Hittites, Aryans and Iranians. The Indo-European language group is made up of a family of several related languages. These include some of the main languages currently being spoken in the Iranian Plateau, Europe and South Asia. There are almost three billion native speakers of Indo-European languages as stated by Mckay et al (78). This family of languages has played an important role in the field of historical linguistics. Its history is the greatest recorded after Afro-asiatic language grouping. The Hittites, Aryans and Iranians are some of the members of this language group. Mckay et al (103) describe the Hittites as a “Bronze Age people of Anatolia”. Their kingdom was centered at Hattusa in north-central Anatolia. By 14th century BC, they were in control of a large part of Anatolia as stated by Mckay et al (107). They have been identified with the Biblical Hittites in the 19th century archeology. Thus they were important in the writing of the bible. Abraham purchased a burial plot from Ephron the Hittite in the bible. They were front runners in the Iron Age. Consequently, it is right to say that they aided in the development of manufacture of iron artifacts. They also played an important role in enhancing the use of cuneiform mode of writing. This is evidenced by many cuneiform tablets retrieved from their empire. The Aryans lived in the ancient Iran and they were known as Mazdayasni Zarathushtris (Mckay et al, 56). Aryans had a very superior military technology. This was a vital aspect that contributed to the current day military art and weaponry. They were fair-skinned and their religion was Hinduism. They enabled the continuation of what is the current Hindu religion. Aryans are the ancestors of the white people. This forms an importance basis for the study of the origin of the European people. The Iranians migrated from central Asia to the Punjab through the northwest as explained by Mckay et al (206). Iranians played various roles in the development of history and they lived from the late Bronze Age. This meant that they contributed to making of tools and weapons. They had various philosophical influences on Christianity and Judaism. They had worriers, clerics as well as farmers thus contributed to formulation of social hierarchy hence contributing to the modern day government formation. 2) The Chinese legalist political philosophy, its assumptions and its importance in the Qin Empire. The Chinese legalism philosophy was found on the notion that a greatly proficient and commanding government is the answer to social order. It was first developed by Shang Yang and was further enhanced by Han Fei Zi and Li Si. It strengthened government and reinforced adherence to law (Mckay et al, 270). It was a utilitarian philosophy that did not address higher questions like the nature and philosophy of life. Instead, it held three principal assumptions that served as tools of la leader to govern the people. This include: Fa or the law of principle, Shu or the tactic of art and Shi or the legitimacy, power or charisma. Fa is the principle of law. It assumes that every individual under a ruler were the same by the law. Laws must reward people who abide by them and punish people who try breaking them. It further states that if law is effectively implemented, even a weak leader will be powerful. Shu is the tactic of art. This tactic or art is assumed to be a vital aspect in strengthening the character of people. This is especially important for rulers to apply special tactics and secrets so as to ensure others do not take charge of the nation. Shi refers to authority, charisma or legitimacy. These values seem to attract individuals. It is the position of a ruler that holds power rather than the ruler themselves. Therefore, analysis of trends, context and facts are necessary for a true ruler. The Qin dynasty was the initial imperial Chinese dynasty. Their power was significantly augmented by the legalist transformations. The Qin achieved a series of rapid conquests during the tardy and middle third century BC. This philosophy enabled the Qin to achieve increased trade, improved agriculture and military security. This was due to the abolition of landowning landlords to whom peasants originally pledged allegiance. The government now had direct control over the masses. 3) Historical context of Confucius and his ideas, the nature of his political and social philosophy and the importance of filial piety. Confucius was an inventive traditionalist. While maintaining the entire ceremonial rituals of the existing cultural form, he offered them a moral impact of his own creation. He was born in 551 BC in the state of Lu (Mckay et al, 489). Confucius became the first private teacher in China at the age of 50. His principal ideas included: the ratification of names, the relationship between human-heartedness and righteousness and finally knowing Ming of fate. Ratification of names principal basically suggested that everyone should be what he/she is. “That ruler be ruler, minister be minister, father be father and son be son” (Mckay et al, 89). Then there would be harmony in the world. Human-heartedness and righteousness is another important character. One can be described as of human-heartedness when in the bid to maintain himself, maintains others, and in the bid to grow himself, grows others, maintains others in bid to maintain himself; this could be referred to as the practice of human heartedness. Knowing Ming as a principal was also very important. In Chinese, the word Ming refers to fate. But the principal does not mean knowing fate. Instead it means acting without considering the outcomes of one’s actions. Instead an individual entrusts results of his/her actions to fate. Socially, his philosophy emphasized humanism. It was based on the social aspects of people like: individuals are improvable other than being teachable and can be perfected by individual and communal effort. It helped people to stay harmoniously with one another. The philosophy had various political aspects. It aided in the peaceful coexistence between states. It also enabled rules have a smooth time administering his/her subjects. Filial piety signifies ‘obligation to God.” It can also be taken to mean love or devotion or loyalty to a parent. Therefore filial piety was important in that it aided in the peaceful existence between children and their parents. It also created a special bond between families and this ensured unity in families. 4) Democracy in Athenian Polis in the 5th century BC, the nature of Athenian Assembly and its participants. Athenian democracy was established within the state of Athens in the Greek city. Athens was one of the first identified democracies. Other Greek cities even emulated Athens. Athenians practiced direct democracy. This means people did not elect individuals to vote for them but instead voted by themselves. The of voters’ public view was controlled by political satire carried out by humorous poets at theatres. The Athenian assembly also known as Ecclesia was the first institution of democracy. It intended to bring together all citizens of Athens but the maximum number which congregated is estimated at 6000 participants (Mckay et al, 181). Yearly, they assembled forty times. It decided on laws and decrees which were proposed. The members of the Ecclesia were men who had attained an age of 18 years and had served in the military for two years. This was the routine unless restricted. 5) Jerome, Ambrose and Augustine and the importance of their ideas in shaping the early history of Christianity. As bible translator, Jerome’s version stayed for a millennium and his full name was Eusebius Hieronymus Sophronius. He was born to Christian parents in Stridon, Dalmatia as Mckay et al (79) point out. He was educated in Rome hence was the biggest Christian scholar by his mid-30s and maybe the greatest personality as far as the bible translation’s history is concerned. He created the bible’s Latin version. “Make knowledge of the Scripture your love…live with them, meditate on them, make them the sole object of your knowledge and inquiries” he said by Mckay, Hill & Beck (122). He played a major role in the continuity of Christianity. He did this by his translation of the bible to Latin. This ensured that more people could read the scriptures hence continuity of Christianity. Ambrose was a bishop of Milan and a saint. He was born in 339 AD in Trier, Germany and educated in Rome (Mckay et al, 248). Ambrose was among the four authentic doctors of the church. As the bishop, he assumed ascetic way of life, allocating his funds to the poor other than donating his entire land. Ambrose was a staunch catholic he faced various challenges especially from the Aryans. But still he stood his ground and courageously pushed on with the doctrines. His contribution was of great importance on shaping the history of Christianity. If it were not for his strong belief and character, the Aryans who had an upper hand in terms of leadership positions would have done away with Christianity. This is because they were in constant conflict with Christianity. Augustine was a theologian and philosopher. He was born on 13th November 354 at Tagaste, in North Africa (Mckay et al, 320). He was ordained bishop of Hippo in 396. He was inclined to Manichaeism and Neoplatonism prior to being converted to Christianity. He was a prolific writer. His words were vital in writing of the church doctrine. He was among the eight big doctors the church has ever seen. Confessions and City of God were his most celebrated publications. He published 113 books together with treatises. “Vitue and vice are not the same, even if they undergo the same torment” Augustine once said (Mckay et al, 357). His contribution to the determining of early Christian history was fundamental. He contributed trough his writings that were used in formulation of the church doctrines. He is also a symbol of faith in the church. This led to his sainthood. Thus he acted as a continuity of church’s faith. In conclusion, it is only right to say that all these three individuals were instrumental in the continuity of Christianity. And were it not for them and others like them, it is very likely that Christianity would not have survived to modern times. Works Cited Mckay, John et al. A History of World Societies. Stuttgart: Bedford Books, 2008. Pp. 25-700 Read More