Implications of Wahhabism for the Ottoman Empire - Term Paper Example

Name: Lecturer: Subject & Code: Date: Implications of Wahhabism for the Ottoman Empire Introduction Wahhabism refers to a religious movement founded by an 18th century Muslim scholar Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) from Saudi Arabia (Commins 1-2). On the other hand, Wahhabi mission can be defined as a religious reform movement connected to the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who believed the movement had a religious duty to “spread the call” in restoring “pure monotheistic” worship (Meulen 121-123). A major factor that led to antagonism between Ottoman Empire and Wahhabi followers in Saudi was the contention that the former was regarded as idolater, and hence belief in non-monotheism (Ungureanu 134). This paper focuses on the implications of Wahhabism for the Ottoman Empire, particularly in the case of Egypt. It analyses the causes and the consequences of the first Ottoman-Saudi war, also referred as the Egyptian-Wahabbi War. It also discusses the significance of Wahhabism in the defeat of Ottomans (Egypt) (Palmer 1-2). Background of the Ottoman-Saudi War Nearly all 20th century Islamist movements trace their origin in Islamic ideology and theology established in the 18th century in eastern Arabian Peninsula (Abun-Nasr 26). The source of the new stream of ideologies was Abd-al-Wahhab, thus the name "Wahhabism." The basis of the ideology was to refuse all traditional practices and scholarly works under the pretext of revitalizing the “true tenets of Islam” as well as protecting the idea of monotheism. This signified the concept of purification (Ungureanu 134-135). In fact, Abd-al-Wahhab’s concept of “purification” of Islam comprised prohibition of a range of customarily accepted acts of worship that were practiced in the Ottoman Empire. He encouraged his followers to act in their own understanding of the fundamental principles of Islam. Individuals who did not profess to the new ideology were considered to be outside the realm of Islam. In due course, Wahhab’s ideologies spread across the Arab Peninsula. Consequently, conflict ensued between the Wahhabi followers and the staunch orthodox Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman-Saudi War, also referred as the Egyptian-Wahhabi War, took place in 1811 and 1818 between the First Saudi State and Egypt under Muhammad Ali Pasha (Ottoman rule), resulting to the dismantling of the First Saudi State and the crushing of the Wahhabi movement. The Wahhabis were suppressed until the ultimate dismantling of the Ottoman Empire in the 1920s. Pursuing new opportunities across the Arab Peninsula, Wahhabis managed to reinstate their ideologies as well as assert their influence on Muslims across the Peninsula. In Egypt, the movement made tremendous impact on Egyptian culture, ideologies, educational institutions, reputation and consequent collapse of the Ottoman Empire (Wynbrandt 24-26). Causes the First Ottoman-Saudi War A major cause of the Ottoman-Saudi War was the conflicting interests concerning control of the trade routes. Wahhabi movement had practiced an expansion policy and by 1805, the Wahhabi tribe controlled Medina and Mecca. They also attacked Ottoman trade caravans thus interrupting the Ottoman economic welfare. This was a major trigger for war, as the Ottoman Empire perceived that eliminating the influence of Wahhabis would restore its prosperity (Wynbrandt 117-119). Conflicting political interests also played a key role in triggering the Ottoman-Saudi War. Towards 1811, the Saudi Amir had denounced allegiance to Ottoman sultan and questioned the legitimacy of his claim to be guardian of the Hejaz sanctuaries. Consequently, the Ottoman Empire directed Muhammad Ali (viceroy of Egypt) to fight the Wahhabis. Some observers have however argued that the Ottoman Empire held suspicions over Muhammad Ali’s ambition and was of the opinion that pitting Ali to fight against the Wahhabis, either of the defeats would be beneficial to Ottoman Empire (Quataert n.p.). Religious factors chiefly played a role in causing the war. Wahhabis believed that Egypt was a land of idolaters, and therefore had to be crashed (Commins 40-41). The Wahhabi mission was basically a religious reform movement connected to the teachings of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhabi, who believed that they had a religious duty to spread the call in restoring pure monotheistic worship. The Wahhabis believed that one must totally refrain from liaising with idolaters. The reason for this is since the mission believed that God commands believers to maintain enmity toward idolaters and anything that can make the Wahhabis to neglect the command is not permitted. The mission also advocated against trading with idolaters as it may corrupt a true and pure Muslim. Among other beliefs included the fact that it was forbidden to stay in the land of idolaters where one could befriend idolaters. Such factors inspired the Wahhabis to engage in a war with Egypt with the view of conquering and changing Egypt to adopt the ideologies (Commins 33-34). The Wahhabis ideology encouraged followers to engage in wars and conquest to purify Islam, the Ottoman Empire was not an exemption. Abd-al-Wahhab’s concept of “purification” of Islam comprised prohibition of a range of customarily accepted acts of worship. He encouraged his followers to act in their own understanding of the fundamental principles of Islam. Individuals who did not profess to the new ideology were considered to be outside the realm of Islam. For instance, in interpreting the proof texts for such a position is a verse from Hadith and Quran. The Quranic verse is al-NIsa 140: “He has already explained in the scripture that when you hear people mock and reject God’s revelations; refrain from sitting with them until they engage in different conversation. In that case, you will be alike. God will congregate all detractors, unbelievers and hypocrites and condemn them to hell.” (Commins 34) Among the interpretation of the verse by Wahhabi followers such as Sheikh Sulayman is that if a pure Muslim sits willingly with infidels while ridiculing God’s revelation and fails to condemn and conquer them, then he can be compared to them. This is because, by remaining in their company, shows approval of disbelief that is in itself a disbelief. On the other hand, since Egyptians were staunch orthodox Ottoman, such interpretations meant that the Egyptians should not be tolerated unless they practices Wahhabi ideology. The Ottoman Empire was however unwilling to promote Wahhabi ideologies in Egypt. Such differences between the two sides triggered the willingness to engage in the War (Commins 1-5a). The intense Wahhabi massacres also caused the war. Many historians have dwelt on the massacres carried out by Wahhabis against Muslims who opposed them. Some observers have further commented that when the Wahhabi crimes increased across the Arabian Peninsula, Muhammad Ali, who was the ruler of Egypt, was asked to assist in fighting against the Wahhabis. Such led to the eventual declaration of the war that saw the eventual defeat of the Wahhabi forces (Commins 34). Polarization of Islam also triggered the war. For almost 50 years, the Wahhabi teaching had polarized Muslims in Arabian Peninsula causing deep divisions and fuelling animosities. Such polarizations inspired differences, where Muslims in Egypt and those in Saudi viewed themselves to be distinct. This was further heightened by Wahhabi’s conquest mission. By 1800, almost the whole of the Arabian Peninsula was under the influence of the First Saudi amirate who supported religious scholarly works of al-Wahhabi, and who advocated for the mission of observing God’s unity (Commins 34). Consequently, the Saudi amirate offered religious scholars economic sustenance and political backing. Wahhabi followers therefore believed in spreading pure and monotheistic Islam. However, it faced stiff opposition and lack of political backing in Egypt. Such opposition fueled the war. The desire to politically crash Saudi by the Ottoman Empire also fueled the war. To the leaders of the Ottoman-Egyptian army, the War against Saudis had its religious and strategic purposes. Engaging in the war was inspired by the need to crush Saudi politically as well as the Wahhabi mission. For instance, an official Egyptian correspondence showed sectarian hostility towards the Najdi reform movement. Also, a letter from Muhammad Ali, which was sent to the Ottoman court in Istanbul in October 1820 and reported on the Wahhabi mission and revival of Saudi power, described Wahhabi presence as “a polluting presence” or “a despise sect.” The letter was mainly aimed to influence Ottoman Empire to crash Saudi and its Wahhabi followers and to seek a longer occupation at Saudi to prevent its possible revival (Commins 130-131). Consequences of the Ottoman-Saudi War Destruction of the first Saudi State made Egypt’s conquest power to standout. By 1818, the First Saudi state had been destroyed as an aftermath of the war. Al-Dir’iyya, Ottoman supporter, razed the city. The political leader of the city was sent to Istanbul where he was publicly executed. At that time, the enemies of Wahhabi believed that Muhammad Ali’s troop had got rid of the sort of heresy in the Muslim world that frequently emerged on its less civilized regions. And so, at the end of 1818, al-Dir’iyya lay in ruins. Depletion of the ranks of key figures in the Wahhabi organization became favorable to Egypt’s peaceful existence. Aside from destruction of Al-Dir’iyya, the Saudi capital, the war depleted the ranks of Wahhabi’s key figures such as Sheikh Abd Allah ibn Muhammad Al al-Sheikh, who had encouraged animosity against Ottoman Empire in the Arabian Peninsula. The war led to exiles, tortures, executions and increased refugee numbers in Egypt. Among the key figures of Wahhabi mission who were captured during the war included Sheikh Abd Allah ibn Muhammad Al al-Sheikh, who had been a religious leader since the 1770s. Muhammad Ali’s forces spared his life and he was sent to Cairo, where he was exiled from Saudi until his death in 1826. His son Sheik Sulayman, who was the author of epistles that advocated against idolaters such as Egyptians was however captured, tortured and executed in al-Dir’iyya when he refused to submit to Ottoman Empire. Other key figures such as Abd al-Rahman ibn Hasan Al al-Sheikh along other captives were taken to Cairo where they became refugees. In 1825 however, he returned to Najd where he revived and lead the Wahhabi mission. Others who became refugees include two of al-Dir’iyya’s qadis who fled to the remote parts of Ra’s al-Khayma amirate on the south-east tip of Arab. Seven other qadis were executed (Commins 130-131). Many other Saudis were transported to Cairo where they became slaves and servants. The total number of the train of refugees is estimated to have been 300. Wahhabi mission managed to penetrate in Egypt and be revived in Egypt, as well as in Saudi. The 300 refugees from Saudi in Egypt along with the qadis once settled in Egypt secretly revived Wahhabi mission in Egypt. At this juncture, more Wahhabi followers were recruited. The massacre of Saudis led to hatred of Egypt across the Arabian Peninsula. When Ottoman’s Ibrahim Pasha withdrew from Najd, the political pattern, the former Saudi political pattern of local contests among the chieftains resumed, to become a powerful Central Arabian amirate. Consequently, lineages that Ottoman Empire had ousted started to fight each other. To avoid possible Saudi comeback, Ibrahim Pasha directed the massacre of nearly 200 former residents of al-Dit’iyya who had tried to repopulate oasis. Although such brutal massacres diminished any prospect of Saudi’s capacity to recover from the recent destructions, it further embittered the people in Arabian Peninsula towards Egyptian (Commins 104). Pro-Wahhibi Saudis declared a lifetime war against Egypt. Many historians have dwelt on the massacres carried out by Wahhabis against Muslims who opposed them. Some observers have further commented that when the Wahhabi crimes increase across the Arabian Peninsula, Muhammad Ali, who was the ruler of Egypt, was asked to assist in fighting against the Wahhabis. Such led to the eventual declaration of the war that resulted into the ultimate defeat of the Wahhabi forces. Afterwards, the Wahhabi declared a lifetime war with Egypt until its ultimate defeat. Cultural conflicts in Egypt. The Saudi refugees and who were basically staunch Wahhabi followers with time settled in Egypt and formed their own potent cultures based on Wahhabi ideology. However, during the tenure of the royal regime, Egypt was not regarded as a fertile ground for exalting Wahhabism. The Egyptian scene was occupied with domestic issues in addition to occupation-related concerns. Into the 19th century, Al-Gamiya Al-Shariya that was an offshoot of Wahhabism and Muslim Brotherhood spread fast in Egypt to supersede some Egyptian cultures. However, after the royal regime when Gamal Abdel-Nasser became Egypt’s president, he combated the Wahhabi tendencies, encouraged by Muslim Brotherhood. In addition, he adopted policies against Saudi Arabia, resulting to the erosion of Saudi cultures in Egypt. However, when President Sadat came into power, there was a shift towards sympathizing with Saudi cultures as he gave Muslim Brotherhood more freedom to spread their cultures and ideologies in Egypt. Additionally, Sadat encouraged Wahhabism and reconciled with Saudi Arabia. Consequently, many publishing houses and books promoted Wahhabi ideas during Sadat’s reign. Among the books that became a reference point for Jihad included Ibn Taymiya, which called for the killing of Sadat. Egyptian Muslims started to be recruited into Wahhabism by Saudi refugees. Observers of the Wahhabis activities in the Ottoman Empire portend that Wahhabi followers were active in recruiting different members of the Islamic group. Additionally, the Wahhabis maintained contact with their counterparts who had remained in Egypt. Such tendencies were sustained by the Wahhabis who were settled in Egypt as refugees after the war. Indeed, into the 19th century, the Wahhabis established institutions that derived their religious ideas and fatwa from Saudi Arabia and refused to approve the Egyptian Dar Al-lfta (or the house of fatwa). For instance, the Wahhabi octopus managed to reach Egyptian universities and Islamic Research Institutes. The Wahhabi defeat led to the rise of other stronger states that became a potential threat to Ottoman Empire dominance. Despite the defeat by Ottoman Empire in 1818, Wahhabi mission had the benefit of strong leaders who guided it from possible obscurity to become dominant yet again. This helped it recover from bitter defeats. For instance, before the defeat, Wahabbis leaders such as Abd Al-Aziz who established an alliance between Wahhabis and Najd made amends to enable Wahhabis to rise yet again. Accordingly, he approached other rules such as Uthman Ibn Muammar of the Saud kingdom of Nejd, which became a powerful state that controlled Saudi Arabia, and whose influence threatened that of the Ottoman Empire. For instance, its influence extended from the Euphrates River to the border of Yemen and to the Persian Gulf. After the Egyptian military intervention, another capable ruler called Turki took control of the Wahhabis and reasserted the influence of Wahhabi mission. After Turki was killed, his son Faisal (after his return from exile) took the reign and established the Najd kingdom from a minor emirate to one of 2 million square kilometers, which became one of the most important nations in the world. Faisal achieved this through military daring and astute diplomacy. This became the second Saudi State, which became a threat to dominance of the Ottoman Empire (AlSaied 1; al-Ummah 1-5). Wahhibis formed anti-Ottoman alliances leading to eventual fall of Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman-Saudi war had far-reaching consequence that spanned over a decade. Indeed, it is the defeat of Wahhabi that informed its followers of its far-reaching potentials both religiously and politically. In a bid to impose Wahhabi hegemony after the Ottoman-Saudi War, expansion of Saudi’s prominence started. It spanned decade with the view of causing the ultimate fall of the Ottoman Empire. For instance, in 1913 Saudi forces led by Ibn Saud formed an alliance with Great Britain that presented it with firearms, ammunition and reinforcements, which he battled with pro-Ottoman Rashidi forces to regain control of Najd. In 1916, Great Britain along with Pro-Wahhibis forces waged a war against Ottoman Empire leading to its eventual fall. Between 1924 and 1925, pro-Wahhibis’ Saudi forced prevailed, and in 1932 after the fall of Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was established. Consequently, the restoration of Saudi reign facilitated the consolidation of Wahhabism as a ruling doctrine (Commins 71). Significance of the Defeat of Ottoman Defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the 1920s led to the spread of Wahhabi ideology in Egypt. Through the refugees transported into Egypt (and who settled into Egypt after the war) as well as with the help of Moheb Eddin Al-Khatib, who authored the first Wahhabi book in Egypt, Wahhabi ideology spread across Egypt. Among factors that accelerated the spread of the Wahhabi ideology was Al-Faqi’s book. Eventually, the first Wahhabi group was established in Egypt called the “Supporters of the Sunna” (or Ansar Al-Sunna). The book appealed to a cross-section of university scholars in Egypt such as Abdel-Rehim, who later established Gama’at Al-Islamiya (al-Ummah 1-5). After the defeat of the Ottoman, more Egyptian Muslims were recruited into Wahhabism followers. Indeed, into the 19th century, the Wahhabis established institutions that derived their religious ideas and fatwa from Saudi Arabia and refused to approve the Egyptian Dar Al-lfta (or the house of fatwa). Examples include Wahhabi octopus that was able to reach Egyptian universities and Islamic Research Institute. Defeat of the Ottomans had significant cultural impact on Egypt. In the 1920s, Al-Gamiya Al-Shariya, which was an offshoot of Wahhabism and Muslim Brotherhood (started in 1923), spread fast in Egypt to integrate and conflict with Egyptian cultures and when Gamal Abdel-Nasser became Egypt’s president, he attempted to disallow the Wahhabi culture that were propagated by Muslim Brotherhood. However, when President Sadat came into power, there was a shift towards sympathizing with Saudi cultures as he gave Muslim Brotherhood more freedom to spread their cultures and ideologies in Egypt (al-Ummah 1-5). Many publishing houses and books that promoted Wahhabi ideas sprang up during Sadat’s reign. Among the books that became a reference point for Jihad included Ibn Taymiya, which called for the killing of Sadat (al-Ummah 1-5). Conclusions In conclusion, a major factor that led to antagonism between Ottoman Empire and Wahhabi followers in Saudi was the contention that the former was regarded as idolater, and hence belief in non-monotheism. Others included the conflicting interests concerning control of the trade routes, Wahhabi movement’s expansion policy, the intense Wahhabi masscares also caused the war and olarization of Islam also triggered the war and the desire to crash Saudi by the Ottoman Empire politically also fueled the war. The war had varied consequences such as destruction of the first Saudi State that made Egypt’s conquest power to standout. Depletion of the ranks of key figures in the Wahhabi organization, which promoted became peaceful existence in Egypt. However, the refugees and qadis transported to Egypt revived Wahhabi movement in Egypt, as well as in Saudi. This led to spread of Wahhabi ideology in Egypt and formation of alliances with other states to defeat the Ottoman Empire in the 1920s. Works Cited Abun-Nasr, Jamil. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1987. AlSaied, Fawzy. The War of Ideologies in the Arab World. Gateston Institute, 2013. 3 Dec 2013, Al-Ummah, Sawt. "Wahhabis consider Egypt a country of kufar [unbelievers]." 52.5 (2002): 1-5 Commins, David. The Jihadi factor in Wakhabi Islam. Dickinson College, 2007. Commins, David. The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B. Taurus: London, 2006. Meulen, Daniel. The Wells of Ibn Sa'ud. Praeger Publishers: Westporp Ungureanu, Daniel. Wahhabism, Salafism and the Expansion of Islamic Fundamentalist Ideology. University of Iasi: Iasi, 2008. Palmer, Alan. The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire. Faber & Faber: Woodstock, 2011. Quataert, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 2005 Wynbrandt, James. A Brief History of Saudi Arabia. Infobase Publishing: New York, 2010. Read More