Discuss Malcolm X's historical relevance on the 1960s - Essay Example

? MALCOLM X'S HISTORICAL RELEVANCE IN THE 1960S May 11, Introduction As the leading spokesman and national minister of theNation of Islam, Malcolm X rose to fame due to his charismatic personality and compelling speeches that diverged from the pacifist narrative of the Civil Rights movement. To his critics, Malcolm X represents the angry generation of disenfranchised black people, who aims to literally crush white oppressors. To his supporters, Malcolm X stood for a “revolutionary black nationalist whose exclusive interest was to combat white supremacy while fostering black unity.”1 Dyson underscores that as Malcolm came close to the year of his assassination, he exhibited a growing sense of humanity and moral awareness that both his critics and “true believers” dismissed.2 This paper explores the historical relevance of Malcolm X in the 1960s. It portrays the life of Malcolm X, his major accomplishments, the probable reasons for his assassination, and his historical relevance in American history. The Life of Malcolm X On May 19, 1925, Louise Norton Little gave birth to Malcolm in Omaha, Nebraska. Malcolm’s father, Earl Little, supported Marcus Garvey’s Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). The UNIA had its headquarters in Harlem and promoted the long-term goal of African Diaspora.3 While the African Americans have not yet returned to Africa, the UNIA promoted black pride and self-reliance. Earl traveled around the U.S. to teach the Garveyite ideals of self-dignity and self-reliance and to prepare believers for a return to Africa someday.4 Louise also contributed to the UNIA through writing articles for the UNIA’s Negro World. While Malcolm became a favorite of his father, Louise hated Malcolm because of his light skin color, which reminded her that she had a white father.5 She whipped Malcolm heavily and frequently. Malcolm’s father died in 1931, leaving his mother to fend for seven children, who were all less than twelve years old. The pressures of being self-reliant and remaining strong, despite her loneliness, pushed Louise to her psychological limits. On January 9, 1939, the courts sent Louise to a state mental hospital at Kalamazoo.6 Because of his earlier misdemeanors, Malcolm ended up in a detention home that the Swerleins managed. Malcolm worked hard for them, so they blocked the previous court decision to put him in reform school.7 Malcolm, however, had mixed feelings for the Swerleins, because he knew that they “liked” him, as if he is a “canary.”8 In 1939, during his seventh-grade year, Malcolm became elected as the class president. He took an active participation in sports and class activities too.9 As the only black student in Mason Junior High School, however, his teachers and classmates called him “the nigger” and older boys often “accidentally elbowed” him.10 One day, Malcolm’s English teacher, Mr. Ostrowsky, asked him if he had thought of a future career. Malcolm impulsively answered that he wanted to be a lawyer. Mr. Ostrowsky asserted that being a lawyer did not constitute as a “realistic” aim “for a nigger” and he asked Malcolm to choose the occupation of carpentry instead.11 After this encounter, Malcolm learned to turn away from the whites who never aimed to give him access to his political and economic rights. Malcolm soon lost his former passionate interest in school. He dropped out and lived in Boston, Massachusetts, where he took numerous odd jobs. Afterwards, he traveled to Harlem, New York, where he became involved in petty crimes, such as drug trafficking and pimping. He turned into a well-known hustler in New York. By 1942, Malcolm acted as a go-between for a variety of narcotics, prostitution and gambling rings. The Malcolm X website narrates that Malcolm and his buddy, Malcolm “Shorty” Jarvis, went back to Boston, after some gang-related problems.12 In 1946, the police arrested them for burglary charges, and Malcolm received a sentence for ten years in prison. During this time, he became interested in educating himself again. Malcolm's brother, Reginald, also regularly visited and inspired him to become a Muslim and to join the religious organization, the Nation of Islam (NOI). The Malcolm X website depicts the interest of Malcolm in the teachings of NOI leader Elijah Muhammad. Elijah Muhammad believed that the white society vigorously worked to keep African-Americans from obtaining political, economic and social success.13 The Malcolm X website adds that the NOI struggled for a state of their own that separated them from white people.14 Malcolm read numerous books and articles about Elijah and the NOI.15 After Malcolm received parole in 1952, he became a devoted follower of the NOI and changed his surname, Little, to “X.” He believed that “Little” was a slave name from white people and chose “X” to indicate his lost tribal name.16 As a member of NOI, Malcolm X exhibited strong leadership skills and showed intense intelligence and passion. Due to these skills, attitudes, and knowledge, he easily became a minister and national spokesman for the Nation of Islam. His popularity boosted the membership of the NOI. Soon, Malcolm’s reputation eclipsed that of Elijah Muhammad’s, which strained their relationship.17 Malcolm gained both believers and critics in his lifetime, especially critics from the government, who became wary of his effect on the black people. Malcolm X, however, developed a gap with Elijah. He discovered that Elijah had sexual relations with as many as six women in the NOI.18 Adulterous relationships like these were forbidden in Islam. During this time, the public severely criticized Malcolm for a comment he made on the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Malcolm said: “[Kennedy] never foresaw that the chickens would come home to roost so soon.”19 After the statement, Elijah Muhammad punished Malcolm by silencing him for 90 days. Malcolm, however, knew that he received the silencing treatment, because he wanted to expose Elijah’s numerous sexual affairs to the public.20 In March 1964, Malcolm ended his relationship with the NOI. He decided to establish his own religious organization, the Muslim Mosque, Inc. In the same year, Malcolm went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The trip changed his life, because for the first time in his life, Malcolm shared his views and beliefs with people from different races and cultures and obtained positive responses.21 Upon his return to the United States, Malcolm stressed that he had met “blonde-haired, blued-eyed men I could call my brothers.”22 Several scholars believed that this pilgrimage gave him new ideas for integration, instead of separatism, which gravely opposed the teachings of the Nation of Islam.23 When Malcolm spoke to the public, he addressed not only African Americans, but all races. He asserted that every race has human rights: “Human rights are something you were born with. Human rights are your God-given rights. Human rights are the rights that are recognized by all nations of this earth.”24 He no longer underscored his attacks on white people, and instead, he preached to all races. After Malcolm resigned from the Nation of Islam, he and Elijah developed a volatile relationship. FBI informants even warned officials that someone marked Malcolm for assassination.25 Malcolm survived several assassination attempts in his life. On February 14, 1965, someone bombed the home, where Malcolm, Betty and their four daughters lived, in East Elmhurst, New York. The family escaped with slight physical injuries. A week later, Malcolm’s enemies became successful. On February 21, 1965, at a speaking engagement in the Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom, three gunmen shot Malcolm fifteen times at close range. At the New York's Columbia Presbyterian Hospital, doctors pronounced him dead on arrival. The police identified Talmadge Hayer, Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson as Malcolm's assassins. The three men belonged to the Nation of Islam. The court convicted them with first-degree murder on March 1966.26 Fifteen hundred people took part in Malcolm's funeral in Harlem on February 27, 1965 at the Faith Temple Church of God in Christ. After the ceremony, Malcolm’s friends buried him.27 Sometime after that year, Betty gave birth to twin daughters. Malcolm X left a legacy filled with controversy, criticism, and pride. In 1992, director Spike Lee released the highly praised movie, Malcolm X, which commemorated Malcolm’s accomplishments. Malcolm X’s Major Accomplishments This section discusses Malcolm’s numerous accomplishments as a member of the Nation of Islam and the African American community. Malcolm X contributed to the growth of his faith, organization, and civil rights of minorities. In December 1953, only a few months after receiving parole from prison, the NOI appointed Malcolm X as the minister of Boston mosque, Temple No. 11.28 The year after that, he also became the minister of Temple No. 12 (Philadelphia) and Temple No. 7 (New York).29 Malcolm established numerous new mosques in cities such as Detroit, Michigan and Harlem, New York. Hence, he contributed to both the physical and spiritual advancement of his organization. Malcolm X used the mass media to promote his religious and political beliefs. In order to reach more Muslims and African Americans, Malcolm established Muhammad Speaks, the NOI newspaper, in 1957.30 Since the 1960s, Malcolm participated in plentiful debates, including forums on radio stations in Los Angeles, New York, and Washington, television program, such as “Open Mind” and “The Mike Wallace News Program,” and universities, such as Harvard Law School, Howard University, and Columbia University.31 Malcolm utilized these avenues to spread the NOI's message across the United States. In 1963, the New York Times stated that Malcolm X became the second most sought-after speaker in America.32 His personality, drive and confidence attracted and amazed new members. Malcolm helped boost the “membership in the NOI from 500 in 1952 to 30,000 in 1963.”33 Malcolm then expanded the members of the Muslim community and the NOI. He even attracted some of the most famous people of his time.34 After being a friend and minister to boxer Cassius Clay, the boxer converted to the Muslim religion and joined the Nation of Islam. In February 1964, Clay changed his name to Muhammad Ali.35 Malcolm also helped generate additional interest and drive in the civil rights movement, although he rejected the methods of this movement, due to his preference for attaining racial equality at all costs. He might not have supported the pacifist approach of the Civil Rights Movement, because he believes that anger leads to greater action and social change, but nevertheless, he offered another persuasive narrative for African Americans, who needed motivation in advancing their socio-economic and political conditions. On June 29, 1963 Malcolm headed the Unity Rally in Harlem. The rally turned out to be one of the country’s largest civil rights events.36 Malcolm helped unite African Americans in demanding for access to their basic civil rights and freedoms. Malcolm also formed his own organizations after splitting with the Nation of Islam. There are many theories on why he left the NOI, such as discovering Elijah’s numerous sexual affairs with women of the NOI and Elijah’s growing envy for the popularity of Malcolm X, both inside and outside the organization.37 In March 1964, Malcolm founded the Muslim Mosque, Inc. and a few months after that, he established the Organizations of Afro-American Unity (OAAU). These organizations further fueled African American’s growing passion for Black Nationalism. The Assassination of Malcolm X The assassination of Malcolm X took place on February 21, 1965. The murder trial convicted Talmadge Hayer, Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson. The trial did not provide enough evidence that determined who exactly wanted Malcolm X killed and why. The prosecution team rapidly assumed that the Nation of Islam was guilty of the assassination and no longer pursued leads that seemed to suggest otherwise.38 Critics alleged the prosecution for focusing only on winning and lamented that they significantly depended on circumstantial evidence, instead of finding hard evidence and determining the real motive of the assassination.39 The defense team faced criticisms too, because they did not provide evidence to defend their clients, and they also did not raise enough questions to weaken the evidence of the prosecution team.40 Fuller presents several theories on Malcolm X’s assassination.41 One of the theories is the “Harlem Drug Lords Theory.” Malcolm fought against the “weapon of the white man,” which referred to illegal drugs, and he vigorously discouraged his black followers and listeners from using drugs.42 This theory, however, relied only on the recollections of one man and much of what he said came from anecdotal evidence. In fact, drug use in Harlem increased during the 1960s, regardless of what Malcolm preached about illegal drugs. The “NYPD Theory” serves as the second theory. The evidence of this theory depended on the views of the people about the “Second Man,” who initial report stated to be with Hayer, when the police arrested him.43 Proponents of this theory believed that the second man turned out to be a police operative, and when the police realized this, the evidence of the second arrest vanished.44 Fuller questioned this report, because of possibilities of reporting errors. There might even be no second man in the first place. For him, the real problem rooted from the fact that the police did not perform their duties in protecting Malcolm X from harm.45 The police claimed to have a detail of twenty police for Malcolm, and yet only George Roberts, one of Malcolm’s bodyguards, guarded the ballroom.46 Because of the absence of these police officers, the police did not effectively thwart the assassination of Malcolm X. The “CIA theory” also tried to answer questions regarding the assassination of Malcolm. The theory stressed that the CIA believed that Malcolm became a threat to national interests. Several CIA agents observed Malcolm’s travels in Africa.47 In Africa, Malcolm aimed to gain support for the Organization of African Unity (OAU). He unsuccessfully lobbied for the OAU to pass the resolution that condemned the racial policy of the U.S.48 Internal CIA documents showed that the CIA never actively tried to stop Malcolm or kill him. Instead, the CIA only monitored Malcolm’s activities. The next theory refers to the “FBI theory.” The FBI started monitoring Malcolm, after the latter claimed a connection with Communism through his letter in prison.49 This letter ignited FBI’s interest on his movements. For the next ten years, the FBI collected numerous documents for their file on Malcolm.50 J. Edgar Hoover’s leadership of the FBI also made the Bureau skeptical of the Civil Rights Movements, which Hoover believed to be a front for communism.51 Theorists provided two pieces of evidence, where the FBI tried to discredit Malcolm. The first was the internal memo from the FBI that took credit for the split between Elijah and Malcolm, although the extent of the FBI’s involvement did not appear in clear terms.52 The second was the document where the FBI sought to stop the rising of the messiah.53 The FBI saw Malcolm as the possible messiah who could ignite a civil war. Nevertheless, none of these documents gave enough proof that the FBI directly wanted to kill Malcolm X. The final theory is the “Nation of Islam Theory.” Hayer offered a confession, but he did not explain his motives for the assassination.54 He also repeatedly claimed that Butler and Johnson did not play an active role in the assassination.55 When Elijah Muhammad died in 1975, Hayer stated that he no longer needed to hide the identities of his fellow assassins, Brother Benjamin, Leon X, Wilbur X, and William X.56 They shared the same motive of silencing Malcolm, whom they called the “chief hypocrite.”57 Malcolm threatened to expose Elijah’s adulterous relationships and the widespread fiscal corruption in the Nation of Islam.58 Evidence showed that the Nation of Islam had the most plausible motive, although the relationship between Elijah, or higher officials, and Malcolm’s assassination cannot be supported with enough evidence.59 Fuller hypothesizes that when numerous ministers used “harsh rhetoric” to denounce Malcolm X, they created a hostile environment that made killing Malcolm a “warranted” action.60 The Nation of Islam might not have directly planned Malcolm’s assassination, but they facilitated the development of antagonistic feelings and actions against Malcolm X. The Shortcomings of Malcolm X Critics attacked Malcolm X for promoting black violence and hatred against whites. Dyson notes that one of Malcolm’s weaknesses is that he died without ironing the debates, regarding the critical changes of his ideology, which came as a product of his travel to Mecca. Scholars are divided up to now. They are not certain whether Malcolm changed from being a nationalist to a socialist, or if he wanted to integrate these socio-political structures. Dyson concludes that: “Malcolm was indeed improvising from the chords of an expanded black nationalist rhetoric and an embryonic socialist criticism of capitalist civilization.”61 Critics accused Malcolm of fragmenting his believers and legacy with these “improvisations.” Another shortcoming of Malcolm X is his “angry” rhetoric against white people that earned him widespread criticism.62 Critics believe that his anger promoted rage among blacks, which made them culpable of being violent against whites. For them, anger does not represent creative energy that can successfully identify and meet collective interests. Anger divides people through promoting resentment against each other. The segregationist thinking also affected the Civil Rights Movement, because it divided the black people into those who wanted peaceful means and those who were eager to use violence to fight for civil rights and freedoms. This division did not help consolidate the strength of the Civil Rights Movement. Malcolm X’s Historical Relevance in the 1960s Malcolm X is important to the 1960s, because he stood in sharp contrast with the leaders of the Civil Rights movement, thereby providing another source of impetus for the American government and society to finally address the racial equality concerns of blacks and other minorities. Griffin stresses that Malcolm is considered a social revolutionary, because he promotes “the universal values of freedom, justice, equality, and dignity.”63 Malcolm argues that all people are entitled to all these rights “at any price.”64 He became one of the most gripping leaders for human rights. Griffin believes that one of Malcolm X’s greatest achievements included the creation of a vivid vision for Black Muslims. He asserts that Malcolm X’s vision of Black Nationalism tried to bring into line the extremist views that he developed as an angry black American. Griffin explains that this vision promoted an egalitarian world, where color had no intrinsic disadvantage or value, and where people can be united under one God. In addition, Malcolm X is a significant figure in history, because he acted as a “catalyst” for community organizing against racial inequality in his time.65 Smallwood describes the effects of Malcolm X on American society. As a leader of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X espoused black separatism, not integration, and the use of force, when necessary. Malcolm X debated with others civil rights leaders, because he no longer believed in the effectiveness of their pacificist approach in resolving racial inequality and inequities. Instead, he believed that organizing communities and teaching them to “defend” themselves with arms, if needed, composed a strong front for disenfranchised black communities. Smallwood compares Malcolm X to Freire, because both acted as a non-formal community leader and organizer, who advocated for radical social changes. Malcolm X further promoted strong feelings of racial pride among African Americans. Morel argues that Malcolm X transformed from being an apolitical acolyte to a preacher of political vision of Africanism. His being apolitical is related to Elijah Muhammad’s belief that blacks must shun the social institutions of whites as much as possible, including their politics. The Nation of Islam believes that Allah has destined whites for elimination and so the less they are interconnected with whites, the better off they will be. Malcolm realizes that political action and violence are critical to achieving his view of black power. He used political rallies and speeches to invoke feelings of racial pride, so that blacks actively shed their feelings of racial inferiority. Ward argues that Malcolm X’s ideas played a vital role in pushing the Black Power movement during the 1960s by raising people’s religious, social, and political awareness. Malcolm’s strengths were his teachings that underscore black self-reliance and racial pride, which influenced rap and hip-hop music later on. Early rap and hip-hop music captivated the struggles and angst of marginalized black people. Ward emphasizes that some of Malcolm’s most important ideas are encapsulated in his speech, “The Ballot or the Bullet.” For this speech, Malcolm criticized the failure of the government and the present political system in addressing diverse racial problems. He espoused Black Nationalism as a political credo that released blacks from racial oppression. This credo, however, went beyond simplistic anti-white sentiments, and united all blacks under a single God. Hence, Malcolm’s credo contained social and political empowerment that derived strength from religiosity. Malcolm X is a significant figure in history too, because he did not teach blind hatred towards whites and supremacist values for his black believers; instead, he promoted critical thinking, flexibility, and education to uplift the lives of black people. Malcolm called his people to assess their lives honestly. He encouraged people to be open-minded, flexible, and ready to change their views, in the face of emerging indisputable facts.66 Malcolm taught the critical role of education in self-empowerment, especially self-education, since it responded to immediate, individual needs.67 One of the most interesting aspects of Malcolm’s biography is his “intense need to be honest, to tell the raw truth about American society as he saw it.”68 He did not shrink from the possibility of offending the minority or majority. As a result, Malcolm frequently affronted both. For instance, the Jewish community blamed him of anti-Semitism, because of his criticisms of Jewish businessmen in Harlem, who owned the majority of the real estate and profited from black man’s toil.69 His reply to these attacks described his blunt views of social reality: “If I tell the simple truth, it does not mean that I am anti-Semitic; it means merely that I am anti-exploitation.”70 Malcolm X became the model of self-criticism and social analysis that spared no race and ideology. Conclusion Malcolm X represented opposing identities for his critics and supporters. On the one hand, he stood for the charismatic leader who pushed for the justification of armed self-defense against white people. Because of these views, he received attacks for promoting reverse discrimination. On the other hand, he played a large role in achieving civil rights for black people through his ideals of Black Power. Black Power arose from self-reliance and self-development. Malcolm X also advanced the ideals of hard work, critical thinking, and self-criticism that aimed to ensure the absence of superiority amongst his followers. He also contributed to the expansion of his faith and organization. He helped galvanized many African Americans under one common vision, the vision of an empowered black race. Malcolm X may have died without resolving the ideological questions surrounding his political views, but he left behind a legacy of Black Power, where the main emphasis of self-development and critical thinking drove his people to challenge and transform their socio-economic and political conditions. Bibliography Dyson, Michael Eric. “Chapter Twenty: X Marks The Plots: A Critical Reading Of Malcolm's Readers.” In Michael Eric Dyson Reader, 261-286. New York: Basic Civitas Books, 2004. Fuller, Brett R. “Malcolm X, Assassination of.” In Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia, edited by Peter Knight, 454-457. California: ABC-CLIO, 2003. Griffin, William. “The Autobiography of Malcolm X.” Masterplots II: Nonfiction Series (Mar. 1989): 1-4. Malcolm X website. “Biography.” Accessed May 1, 2012. http://www.malcolmx.com/about/bio.html. Morel, Lucas E. “Malcolm X: From Apolitical Acolyte to Political Preacher.” In History of American Political Thought, edited by Bryan-Paul Frost and Jeffrey Sikkenga, 687-696. Maryland: Lexington, 2003. Smallwood, Andrew P. “Malcolm X’s Leadership and Legacy: From the Grassroots to African Diaspora.” In African American Consciousness: Past and Present, edited by James L. Conyers Jr. and James Conyers, 93-108. New Jersey: Transaction, 2011. The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University. “The Lost and the Found: The Nation of Islam, 1955-1960.” The Life of Malcolm X. Accessed May 1, 2012. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/nationofislam.html. Wainstock, Dennis. Malcolm X, African American Revolutionary. North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 2009. Ward, Brian. The 1960s: A Documentary Reader. Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2012. Read More