The Idea of Practice and CALL Applications in Second Language Acquisition - Coursework Example

The Idea of Practice and CALL applications in Second Language Acquisition Practice in Second Language Acquisition Introduction The path to success in any sport, business, and music or science career is practice. A good sportsman or musician must invest many hours of practice. Many researchers have established that the practice of language is key to learning. This strongly supports the long held idea on the axioms of learning “practice makes perfect.” It is postulated that the level of proficiency in learning is directly proportional to the number of hours spent practicing. In language teaching, it is also apparent that the practice is a vital component of language learning. Any person with a classroom teaching experience of a second language will unreservedly attest to this axiom. However, can practice truly create a perfect acquisition of a second language or learning process? Some students often spend many hours doing practice but no substantial results are seen in their learning. This is often evident in EFL contexts, where most learners attain a less than wanted proficiency level. Furthermore, it is observable that these learners have a high degree of fossilization, where many learners find it difficult to progress from their current grammatical competence level. This phenomenon is mostly prevalent in language programmes that emphasize heavily on authentic communication at the developmental stages of language learning (Higgs & Clifford, 1982; Brown, 2000). Since practice is a key element in language learning, why still do students fail to achieve a high proficiency level after doing much practice? Thus, it is essential to analyze why classroom practice is not producing the desired results. Are students given irrelevant practice forms? Is the amount of practice insufficient? This paper answers these questions by analyzing the following areas. It begins by discussing the idea of practice in second language learning. Second, the role of practice in second language learning and teaching will be discussed. Foreign language teachers are faced with a conflict of balancing between communication and grammar instruction. Grammar teaching among educators and learners have been categorized into three dimensions (i.e. form, use and meaning) coupled with explicit teaching rules. Firstly, the term form relates to the manner in which the structure of grammar is created and arranged in-text or within discourse. Secondly, the word meaning relates to the meaning conveyed by a particular grammatical structure. As Larsen-Freeman (2003) explains that the most inherent units in this category include “words, derivational morphemes, multiword lexical strings and notions” (p. 34). In addition, the author complements “the meaning could be lexical or grammatical.” Thirdly, the term use refers to the reasons behind choosing a particular grammatical structure over others that could communicate a similar meaning (Larsen-Freeman, 2003). In addition, Larsen-Freeman (2003) suggests that grammar involve other dimensions other than form. He emphasizes the need for teachers to include other dimensions when teaching since “grammar structures not only have (morphosyntactic) form, [but] they are also used to express meaning (semantics) in a context-appropriate use (pragmatics)” (p. 252). However, it does not mean that these forms should be conveyed all at once in a single lesson. It must be a continual gradual process requiring much practice so that teachers and learners fully understand the concepts involved. Practice in second language acquisition has been referred differently by scholars. Some argue that learning do not translate to being acquisition. The findings of several empirical researches show that the practice in language learning has not achieved its effectiveness. According to VanPatten, practice is more enhanced by meaning based input practice than systematic production practice since “acquisition happens as a byproduct of comprehension” (2003, p. 26). Long’s perception that the task-based practice that concentrates on form should replace practice built around forms has gained prominence from educators and learners. Long suggests that “as many of the problem areas as possible should be handled within otherwise communicative lessons by briefly drawing learners’ attention to some items as and when problems arise” (2009, p. 384). Through these quotations, it is evident that the idea of practice has aroused many arguments on its definition, function and implementation. (Long, 2009) Practice is defined by Larsen-Freeman as “using the productive skills of writing and speaking; using the target patterns or structures in a meaningful, engaging and focused way” (2003, p.100). Practice is also be defined as “specific activities in the second language engaged in a systematically and deliberately; with the goal of developing knowledge of and skill in the second language” (DeKeyser, 2007, p. 8). Through a deeper analysis, the different definitions of practice seem somehow related to each other. This raises the issue of whether the objectives of practice according to the particular definitions have value and can be attained. In simple terms, it means which explanation of practice will produce better results than the others. This paper’s argument is that the praxis of practice can occur in different forms, and its effectiveness relies on the context and the students. Role of Practice in Second Language and Teaching To develop a much deeper insight of the role played by practice on second language learning and teaching; it is important to discuss first two critical aspects of learning. These features are closely related to the idea of language competence. Aspects of Language Learning Irrespective of the context on which English is being learned (whether as a foreign or second language), all learners aim at developing competence in two main areas (Wong & VanPatten, 2003). First, is to develop an underlying linguistic system. However, this system is very intricate. It consists of (1) a pragmatic system that helps people to derive meanings of utterances. (2) A phonological system which is a set-up of lexical items. (3) A sociolinguistic system that make it possible to produce a sociolinguistic apposite language. (4) A syntactic system, that ensures sentences that are grammatically correct are produced. (5) A set of rules that make it possible for the construction of longer utterances. In order for learners to be successful language learners and users, they must develop this linguistic system. Second, learners should be able to apply the linguistic system directly in communication. This refers to advancing skills involved in language production such as writing and speaking. The main aim here is to foster accuracy and fluency. In simple terms, language is produced in a fluent and effortless manner free from common noticeable errors in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Therefore, the knowledge of the underlying language system and ability to use it in communication is necessary for the development of competence in language use. However, what ways can learners acquire and advance the two aspects of learning? Research findings have shown that these aspects of language learning can be developed through different types of practice (DeKeyser, 2007). An exposure to an input language is fundamental to the development of the underlying linguistic system. This means that learners should be engaged regularly in input-based practice. On the other hand, fluency in the use of language is enhanced through output-based practice. Output-based practice Common practices in the language classrooms are often out-based practices. The three general output-based practices are as follows. (1) Mechanical practice (drill) involves controlling the practice activity. Here emphasis is to ensure that students give a response even though they have not properly understood the language they are using. Repetitive drills of grammatical items are a good example of this practice. (2) Meaningful practice involves a controlled language learning environment. Here there is a strong focus on the need to understand so as to give the correct answer. (3) Communicative practice involves focusing on ways of communicating. Here the students need to match the language with the appropriate context of communicating. The output-based methods are significant in helping students gain fluency in the use of language. Fluency has many beneficial features to the learners such as it allows the production of language without straining; provides a sound speaking of the language; allows one to coherently express his ideas; promotes continuous speech with no or minimum errors. However, the use of repetitive drills can be disadvantageous. The students lack the capacity to conceptualize a meaning and then convey it using linguistic means. Furthermore, not only achieving this, but being able to do this in a creative manner (Wong & VanPatten, 2003). Input-based practice Input contributes mainly to learners developing a complex linguistic system. Researchers in second language seem to be agreeing on the role input-based practice has on the growth of learners’ linguistic system. According to Wong and VanPatten (2003), the development of this complex and implicit linguistic system is not dependent on learner practice of language, but rather is dependent on exposure to what is called input information (p.404).”In this context practice refers to output-based practices such as oral drills, discussions and speaking. Input-based practices are rarely popular with teachers of second languages. Probably this may be due to the setting of many language programs that require teaching of how to apply English in a real communicating setting at the introduction of the course. Thus, many programmes have given more consideration on activities in the classroom that promote language production than those that do not by using activities such as role-plays, communication games and simulations. Hence production fluency has been allocated more learning time than input-based practices that improve receptive comprehension. Input is the written or oral language a learner obtains. To achieve the full benefits of input-based practice in the language learning process it should (Renandya, 2011): (a) be comprehensible; (b) be dependably and abundantly available; (c) be recurrently encountered; (d) have language features higher than the current level of the learner; (e) have engaging language features, and (f) be interesting and meaningful. A wide exposure to comprehensible language, whether it is by listening or reading, is vital for language acquisition. Apart from focusing on forms, the use of task-based and content-based teaching can produce desirable results (Long, 2009). The different forms of practice have different reaching effects on individuals. They cannot all produce the same results on certain individuals. For example, the practice forms used by adults will not be of benefit to children. Children can be more comfortable in using repetitive and mechanical drills than adolescents or adults. If the practice of language were formulated in a game form, children would be more willing to participate than adults. CALL tasks and Applications in Computer applications for TEFL There are people that suggest the future setting of teaching will be purely accomplished through the use of computers and this will cause teachers to be redundant. Analyzing some of these views, it is evident that the majority of the propagators of such messages have little computing or teaching experience. However, when critically analyzing these statements, teachers are fundamental needs of an intricate civilization, while computers are tools that enhance learning. A good teacher uses the most advanced and available tools to enhance effective teaching; in case of many tasks that need to be performed computers are best suited for use. When teaching using technology the main emphasis is on language learning while technology plays a supportive function. Technology only aids language acquisition. According to Egbert she acknowledges that technology is an important element to Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL); however, "it is not just the technology or the language that is important, but the whole learning environment system that teachers can create with their students” (2005, p.4). This quotation stresses on learning language using technology and recommends that educators should desist from being "techno-centric in thinking" (2005, p. 4). To be specific, CALL Essentials portrays the computer as a supportive medium for learning and teaching language and should not be used as an alternate for the teacher. The use of computer in teaching provides fast access to and manipulation of data that can be displayed in several sophisticated and lively formats. Nowadays, teachers of language are required to have expertise on the use of CALL that incorporates (1) a comprehensive Knowhow, (2) practical skills of information technology theory. In the teaching process, teachers may be necessitated to implement, design and evaluate CALL tasks in their classrooms. They can be required to oversee institutional projects or collaborate with each other to create CALL-based programs. Thus, it is significant for teachers to become all rounded and well informed about CALL options (Egbert & Hanson-Smith, 1999). In the 21st century, it is necessary for anyone interested in the teaching and learning of second language to have knowledge of the technology-mediated tasks. The general use of computers by language learners is to carry out activities such as sending and receiving e-mail, writing papers and browsing the World Wide Web. Teachers have a challenge of putting into practice the knowhow they have about computers into language teaching. To meet this challenge, teachers should study the features of computer-based tasks (Thomas & Reinders, 2010). Many learners would be necessitated to get ready for computer assisted language test such as Test of English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) program. Therefore, it is important for test users to have the knowhow on the aspects involved the choice of such tests and assisting learners get ready for them. Another vital aspect is that researchers and test developers should have a good comprehension of computer assisted language testing. Drill and test instructions that used CALL programs were developed as early as 1950s (Chapelle, 2001). The programs had only two options to choose from to get one answer. This CALL software had limitations and the challenge was to develop an interactive interface for the learner that could assess the student and provide extra activities. In the 1970s, CALL developed as a practice and drill program and was considered as an add-on to classroom instruction rather than its substitute. However, even today there are several existent drill programs that improve the practice of grammar and vocabulary proficiency. This is so considering that repetitive exposure to language fosters its acquisition. In addition, computers give instant feedback and relays instructions at the pace of the learner, thus promoting learner autonomy (Chapelle, 2001). The advent of microcomputers led to a communicative model of CALL programs. This was referred as so since it stressed on the communicative use of language contrary to the previous notion of mastery of isolated forms. These programs contained doze tests, games, text reconstruction, puzzles, writing and reading practice. Further, improvements were made to this model to create a cognitive model that acts as a stimulus. The program objective was to increase the motivation of students, creativity, critical thinking, and analytical skills instead of only encouraging the getting of the right answer. Another program model involved computer being used as the tool that provides students with means of becoming active learners. Computer applications in this group, such as word processors, desktop publishing programs, spelling and grammar checkers, did not form the basis of language learning process but eased the manipulation and understanding of the desired language by students. Nowadays CALL has incorporated a vast use of multimedia programs that provide an interactive and enjoyable process. Modern technologies like chat rooms, video conferencing and e-mail have served as a complement to the traditional forms like letters and phone calls (Thomas & Reinders, 2010). Many research studies show that CALL is essential in creating proficiency of linguistics and competence in communication, in second language learners. It also develops high levels of learner autonomy, satisfaction, motivation and self-confidence. CALL has been categorized into seven distinct groups of activities. The most significant CALL activity is writing. This includes applications such as desktop publishers, word processors and text analysis, regularly used along with communicating over the internet. These activities offer more sophisticated and interactive approaches than the general spelling and grammar checking. For example, L2 teachers nowadays require their students to type their essays using computers and then e-mail them, or post them in online discussion forums. This gives students an opportunity to discuss and correct their mistakes. Hence the process provides an avenue for engaging in significant communicating process and fosters acquisition of knowledge through interaction. The second CALL activity is communicating. This entails exchange of email, discussions on LANs by both students and teachers, and real-time chat. These activities are especially significant in the teaching of a foreign language for students with similar L1 since they develop the urge of using a foreign language for real communicating. The third CALL activity is the use of multimedia. This involves presenting course materials through CD-ROMs or online to foster learning of specific skills such as communicative practice or integrated skills-based, and grammar or pronunciation. It incorporates hyperlinks that help students in acquiring supplementary materials useful in language learning. The programs created by teachers are course-specific and are formulated to ask students questions regarding materials discussed in class (Egbert, 2005). The internet use is another use of CALL activity that encompasses search for information in the Web, and creation of home pages by students. The use of internet sometimes inhibits critical thinking and advancement of creativity. Related to this is an aspect of information literacy. The other use of CALL is referencing and concordance, or use of a corpus to scrutinize the extent of grammar and vocabulary use, and making use of online dictionaries to find definitions and usage information. Distance learning is also another important use of CALL. Distance learning facilitates teachers designing of Web pages to convey their course material, lesson schedules and research papers. Many teachers have started taking online attendance, post tests and drills and other materials on their home pages. The limitation of distance learning is it might not provide a direct assessing of weaker students that will help them develop (Egbert, 2005). Another essential aspect of CALL is its use in test taking. Computer-based tests are effective in developing language skills since they give instant feedback and multimedia help by providing access to grammatical explanations, dictionaries, video and audio study materials for test items (Chapelle, 2001; Egbert & Hanson-Smith., 1999). However, this can also result in developing a low understanding of the grammatical items and rules of the language since the use of internet may provide direct answers to tests. This leads to learners developing a culture of not thinking critically and being non-creative. Conclusion It is apparent that both output-based and input-based practices of language are beneficial in language learning. Input-based enhances the learners’ linguistic system, while output-based promotes the skilful language use. Second language acquisition needs a huge amount of practice, just similar to other skills. Systematic activities are very essential: this includes, task-based learning, communicative drills, content-based teaching, and role-playing activities. Practice should be able to be adaptable to the characteristics of the learner and context of teaching. Further research should be done to analyze effective incorporation such adaptation in the learning process. CALL practice is essentially important in the acquisition of second language as it increases the proficiency levels of the language. The use of CALL applications integrating computer technology in learning and teaching serves to promote language acquisition and not to replace the role of teachers. References Brown, H., Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (2nd Edition ed.). Pearson ESL., New York: 2000 Chapelle, C. Computer Apllications, in Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2001 Dekeyser, R.M. (Ed.) Practice in a Second Language: Perspective from apllied linguistics and cognitive psychology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2007 Egbert, J. & Hanson-Smith, E. (Ed.). CALL environments: Research, practice, and critical issues. TESOL, Alexandria, Virginia: 1999 Egbert, J. CALL Essentials: Principles and Practice in CALL Classrooms. TESOL, Alexandria, Virginia: 2005 Higgs, T. & Clifford. The push toward communication. 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