French Studies: Approaches to Language - Assignment Example

 A) What is the difference between a language and a dialect? Ensure you refers to Bell’s language criteria in your answer. A language can be defined as a structure of communication using symbols or sounds to facilitate expression of thoughts, feelings, experiences or ideas. On the other hand, a dialect refers to any form of language used by members of a given social class, geographical area or occupational group that is distinct in its pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary1. Bell’s language criteria has been used to help explain the differences between a language and a dialect. It considers various aspects to illustrate the criteria used to distinguish a dialect from a language. However, there have been no universal criteria to distinguish a language from a dialect; thereexist a number of contradictions. These contradictions distinguish languages from dialects while others seems to diminish the differences. Thedistinction therefore varies with reference to the users of a language or a dialect. The most common and distinct criterion used is the mutual intelligibility is defining a language as a dialect if one person speaking a particular dialect absolutely understands the other speaking a different dialect2. The contrary is considered to be a different language altogether. The problem arises where dialect A and B may be mutually intelligible, B may also be mutuallyintelligible to C but C happens not to be intelligible to A. This is referred to as dialect continua and it often leads to contradiction. For instance, the person speaking dialect G can understand dialect H but the reveres is not the case. This can either be categorized as a language or dialect based on the view from each side. Another instance of criteria used in differentiating languages from dialects is the linguistic authority. Based on this fact, a language may be considered as distinct from a dialect on the fact that dialects may differ on the perspectiveuse of some concepts that is clearly defined in a language. The language therefore exist as a uniform authority that a dialect may base its derivation or concepts. A similar scenario is the scientific field. For instance, to deduce the name of an invention, those speaking East Franconia German and Bavarian German consults a German dictionary or may seek for consultation from a German linguistic expert in order to accord the correct name to such scientific facts. The Political and social aspects. Political factors have been the major contributors to emerging differencebetween languages and dialects. The political class has risen to create a different version of the aspects in language. The language, spoken by the social elites and political class is considered the proper version of the language. As a result, dialects have been adversely associated with the low political class. Concerning this notion, a dialect is regarded as a variety rather than a language. The classifications are majorly based on the following factors: If the dialect has no codified form or standard If the dialect are never or rarely applied in writing It the dialect speakers are stateless If the dialect lack prestige with regard to other languages which are standardized. In these aspects, languages are particularly special and prestigious-written, written and considered to be official. Dialect is despised, unofficial and mostly spoken. The speakers of dialects merely refer to it as “patois”, “slang” or any other term varying from one area to another. Linguistics vary in criteria-for instance, two individuals may have a conversation, if the speech is so close, they will understand each other, this implies their dialects has a of common language. If the compression becomes so difficult to almost impossible, this implies this is a languages and therefore distinct from a dialect. Comprehensibility is a major determinant of asymmetry between two dialects or languages. The case of china is a simplified instant of the variance between dialect and language. The uniform style of writing in Chinese can be considered as acceptable among different linguists, this is not the case since mainland Chinese often write with a more simplified version of most characters used in Taiwan and Hong Kong. This is often confusing since written speech is much different from the real language. Similar assumption may be used to categories Arabic as single language contrary to the fact that Syrians and Moroccan cannot understand each other. Linguistics therefore does differ based on several concepts i.e. mutual intelligibility. If there exist two languages where both speakers can understand one another, this is considered to be a dialect that is of the same language .On the other hand, if the speakers of the two languages cannot understand each other, the languages are considered to be separate. Based on historical facts, most groups of people who coexist continuously alongside each other will become mutually intelligible. Once the groups separate in space and time, the dialects that once existed vanishes and turns into distinct languages. In most parts of the world, linguistics consider the original spoken language as primary; speech is more or less universal since two people may only share a language only if they can converse without much trouble. Power: based on money, status, entities and influence, a language is considered more significant and powerful as compared to dialects. This is evident from the special reservations made for a language in the political as well as judicial sector. Dialect is considered to be literary outrageous if used in a court of law or in the parliament. This may imply disregard to the national integrity and perception as well. Solidarity: a language is associated with the solidarity metric within a group of people and its strict observation can lead to its preservation; the contrary is true for a dialect, which is left to grow on its own without strict supervision or sense of belonging. Various groups of people have the pride of being unique and different from other groups. As a result, they consider their languages superior over other languages. In such groups, languages are perceived as a pure breed of independent language, which is distinct from other languages. The language status is determined by political and historical development in addition to linguistic criteria. On the other hand,dialects usually result from close contact and do not need certain aspects of political influence. The rise of Nationalism developed especially as result of French revolution and made the distinction between a dialectand alanguage more significant in politics. People speaking a language are often seen as the owners of a nation with rights while the dialects speakers are observed as sub-group of abiggergroup. The rift between dialects and languages has been therefore greatly magnified by the political aspect in a away to solicit distinction and identity. Decline; Agiven varietyof language can be considered as the sub-variety of another language rather than as an independent entity. This may either result from reduction of most resources such as lack of writing system. The lack of system procedure and guidelines for writing particular dialects distinguishes it from a language. Language is more formal and has universal standards for encoding and decoding in written forms. For example, pidgins and languages. While there exists a universal, standard for writing English language, pidgins can be intertwined according to the context of the conversation or event and it normally vary from one group to another. Availability of Genuine Forms; Language is considered to have a genuine form that is distinct from any other language by its speakers. Dialects on the contrary areconsidered a sub-ordinatevariety thatcannot be defined easily. Alanguage that constitutes one variety can therefore be referred to as a language but not a dialect. A primary language transmitted from parent to child as a primary means of communication can be considered as language. The resulting speech adopted by people of varying vernaculars though includes the primary language is considered a dialect. For example, in England, educational background, social groups, class occupation, ethnicorigin or social groups determines the level of Received Pronunciation (RP).Though they speak the same language the accent and grammar may differ invariantly. The style:The language adopted varies depending on its formality or informality. This takes into account variable such as age differences, occasions, or social class. Dialects are normally informal and unstructured. It is most often used among the low social class, children and for casual occasions. Meanwhile, languages are more structured and formal andoften used in special occasions, by the high social class and the adults. Register A language can be categorized into various registers. Occupational and social groups are usually associated with certain type of registers. Languages often take a more formal registers and used among professionals and certain social class (bank managers, pilots, surgeons). The vocabulary, syntax, morphology, intonation and syntax used in languages differs from languages to dialects. While languages pays close attention to intonation, vocabulary morphology and syntax, dialects usually disregard these aspects. dies (E) How do work colleagues negotiate politeness and solidarity in work place encounters? Provide examples from studies reported in the sociolinguistic literature. Social and ethical interaction between workers is a very essential aspect of an organization. Managing people at work places is regarded as the basic provision of cultural values and belief that guides the emotions, behaviours of the people at work place3. Just as communication is essential in a work place, ethics and solidarity accompanies the mutual coexistence between workers. The success of the international commerce heavily relies on intercultural managerial and communication skills. It has been therefore important to note as well and as include cross-cultural management and efficient communication skills in order to achieve mutual coexistence within a work place4. Communication is a major challenge at the initial stages of anoffice set up. This is normally expected to improve with time. Colleagues at work should therefore adequately adapt to the office environment. Negotiation andsolidarity at work is an aspect that drives the motives, trust, confidenceand developingrelationship among work colleagues. Most businesses organizationalentitiesallownegotiation to continue on its own. This is a more liberal way to provide free space for workmats to negotiate their concerns in the best way that suites them. The agreements and disagreements are communicated, they are vital in cross-cultural negotiations. In some cultures, directness in approach between colleagues may be considered as discourteous or rude. These grossly varies between individual too. Poor communication or negotiation between staff can also be seen as a sign of mistrust. The management should therefore opt for the best alternatives to communicate to its staff. This may be in the form of polite but precise manner that will positively affect the staff. Negotiation often involves verbal cues and nonverbal codes. The manners in which such a word is communicated are vital in Staff Corporation and solidarity in a work place.The objectives of most organisation are to maintain teamwork and group harmony. The colleagues are therefore expected to view the organization as a community rather than an entity. Thecolleagues are in turn required by the organization to work towards achieving a common goal through collective responsibility and corporation. The need to achieve this goal desires adequate communication and negotiation skills from the staff as well as the management. The following provides typical negotiation skills in a work place. Jane: So, MrHuila, why would you wish to postpone the task until Monday? MrHuila: I have a fixed schedule over the weekend. I hope that will not inconvenience that much. Jane: That is very understandable, but could you fix some time on Saturday evening to do the light part of the task? MrHuila: That will be most unlikely but I will communicate in time just in case I can see to it. Jane: Thank you very much. That will be kind of you. MrHuila: Thank you too. This is an example commonly used between colleaguesat work place. Despite the fact that Huilawill not be able to make it, He is assuring Jane that he will do his best. This is more promising way to go round normal work schedule without causing discomfort or alarm among work mates. Negotiation can therefore act as an important tool for negotiating your way out of trouble or demanding situation in a work as illustrated above. Negotiation helps access the feeling that employees have towards each other. This helps organization to measure performance matrix since and employees who poses good negotiation skills are easy to deal with. Work places provide the ideal situations to create relationship. This is because it consist of people of varying characters and ethnic background. Colleagues at work usually solicit support from their peers during organizational election and various events. A colleague who cannot negotiate his or her way out of trouble or demanding situation is more vulnerable and cannot succeed in such cases. In order to understand how an organization works, colleagues must usually consult their counterparts. This can be facilitated by providing a common office set that accommodates a numbers of workers. This may be a strategic plan by an organization to enable an interactive environment among colleagues. The colleagues learn to accept each other through collective responsibility and the feeling of inclusion Etiquette and manners are key elements in every negotiation. Colleagueswho work together on a daily basis will become more familiar and free with one another to the extent of sharing social and private life. This helps solve problems between colleagues without involving a third party or the organization management. Forinstance, mostcolleaguesusually trainthemselves to manage personal difference. These may be in the form of negotiation and mutual understanding. Mostcolleagues while working in a similar department, has mastered the aspect of respect while disregarding ethical or social status. Most organizationtreats their workers as a family and their views and decisions are respected. Each colleague must always be patient and observant of others rights. Patience is also an important virtue in a conversation. When there is a disagreement or misunderstanding between colleagues, there is always an inbuilt sense of patience and obedience within an individual that enables her/him to facilitate negotiation. Even though negotiation is not mandatory, it is human nature to try to solve problems that they encounter. Once colleagues encounter a problem, they always express the willingness to meet their counter parts and discuss the problems. It has been determined in sociology that human beings tends to converse a lot and are always determined to avoid all sorts of trouble. Nevertheless, problems are always inevitable and human being havedeviced ways to overcome such problems. Negotiation, collective responsibility and ethics are the common aspect that has been used to solve most of these problems. Problem solution may be a source of relief from stress and guilt that accompanies social distress. Collective responsive therefore brings colleagues at work more closelyas well as playing a pivotal role in social development. The behavioural etiquette required at most work places are majorly based on communication. The level of communication should be highly formal in the case of high profile occupational structure. The way one carries out his or her task in such organization follows a predefined structure of leadership level. The flow of communication right from the top-level right to the lowest level needs to be appropriate and well structured. Once the people at the top fails to follow the appropriate way in the negotiation of wages, terms and conditions of work, colleagues usually resort to outrageous ways in dealing with the matter. This implies that managers who are willing to prosper and take control over their workers need to set up negotiation strategies that provide solutions and guidelines to colleagues at work. The organizational structure should also be set in such a way that it gives colleagues at work some free time. Employees are always driven by intuitive for success, promotion and appreciation. The virtue of appreciation from colleague is a good gesture of togetherness and love. This essential element is always inbuilt within an individual. If the virtue is applied correctly in a work place, the organization is not only aspired to prosper but also promote a peaceful and conducive environment for work. Take an instance of a colleague at work who is feeling unworthy and unappreciated. He or she may be compelled to move out and seek employment from another firm. The firm may not be willing to permit these since the wealth of experience and knowledge possessed by the individual is immeasurable. The company opts to look into the probable causes such as low wages .The firm is obliged to negotiate for a rise in the salary of the individual. Through the individual may demand higher salary hike, the firm agrees to increase the salary but within a period spread over three years at a given rate. The virtue of negotiation has therefore helped solved the problem and maintain the worker as well. Though people may be more comfortable negotiating with people from the same background, there is always diversity when the colleagues come from different groups or ethnicity. For instance, the government positions, allocation of resources require deductive reasoning and approach. Since the work place constitutes people with varying backgrounds, each person will have the need to acquire more for his or her people. There is evidence from social and philosophical aspects, which states that human, have the desire to acquire more and more. These can be overcame if negotiation between the colleagues is successful and seems to favour both sides. Apart from providing vivid and sound decisions, negotiation also triggers a sense of belonging and acceptance among colleagues. This in turn leads to solidarity at work where one takes responsibility of his/her actions with regard to etiquette and appropriate handling of fellow colleagues. Reference. 1. Bell, (1976). Criteria for distinguishing between languages 2. Hudson (1996, p. 22): ‘a set of linguistic items with similar distribution’ 3. Finegan, Edward (2007). Language: It’s Structure and Use (5th Ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Thomson Wadsworth. p. 348. ISBN 978-1-4130-3055-6 4. Gopsill, F. P., International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield: British Interlingua Society, 1990. Read More