Development of a Strain Theory - Report Example

Criminology: Strain Theory and/or ID # Teacher One of the most groundbreaking theories of the twentieth century was the development of the concept that stressful circumstances from both the social and personal environment of a human being can create a criminal, or is at least a strong precursor of one. Strain theory evolved over several decades from a concept originally developed from a model promoted by the sociologist, Émile Durkheim, in his published work Suicide in 1897. Here he presented a theory that outside influences can cause a malaise in individuals leading to depression and anomie, or a lack of value and purpose. Later Robert King Merton seized on this idea of anomie and further refined it into what we now know as Strain Theory. (Featherstone, 2003) The following appeared in his obituary in the Economist in 2003, "In writing about what he called strain theory he examined the problems of an unequal society, particularly the rise of the innovators, those who turned to crime to achieve social goals denied them by legitimate means." (Robert Merton) The innovators are those who use very creative means to circumscribe the system of law and accomplish gain by illegal methods. This strain begins in early adulthood and adolescence, as children are exposed to the environment of everyday living. Those in poorer circumstance with less opportunity to achieve the goals they see presented in the media are often frustrated and anxiety ridden. "The social strain theory of delinquency is based on the idea that delinquency results when individuals are unable to achieve their goals through legitimate channels." (Sullivan & Wilson 1995: 1) The most obvious example of this is the "Gangsta" culture that is often promoted on many levels as the way that those without the legitimate means may attain those goals. But this is nothing new, the deification of criminals certainly has been a recurring theme throughout history and the romanticizing of their crimes leads to an unrealistic portrayal of possibilities for the maturing adolescent. One of the earliest strains in the life of a juvenile is the search for legitimate employment. Again, dependent on circumstantial variables of education and cultural jobs may be difficult to find and lead to feeling of persecution and prejudice: Sociological accounts often note that delinquency is an invention of western industrialized society and the separation of childhood from the adult world of work (Empey & Stafford 1991; Platt 1969). As job security becomes more precarious in western economies, and as adult unemployment linked to school failure becomes more common, the lasting significance of the counterschool subculture of delinquency in the life course may become more salient for some adults. (Hagan 1997:121) This "counterschool subculture" is perhaps one of the most deleterious results of the social strain concept. Difficulties in school are often one of the benchmarks of the evolving delinquent. First seen as the failure of the child or parent and then of the school system, these children often have no recourse but to find alternate means of attaining status and capital. "Several theories emphasize how stress or strain can motivate criminal behavior so strongly that possible constraints are ignored. Therefore age and crime may be related because many potential stresses or strains are age-linked." (Tittle & Grasmick 1997: 321) On the microcosmic level of the young adult this can have many differing ramifications. An unsettling home environment often precipitates failure in school and exposure to abuse or neglect is often present in these conditions. These strains add to a growing feeling of low self-esteem and in an attempt to bolster their self-worth the adolescent may resort to different ways of avoiding the home life altogether. This includes becoming homeless and taking to the street, or finding ways of creating money in order to leave the hostile environment. (Benjamin 1999) Stressors affect the psychology of the individual equally although it must be understood that certainly more strain can be found for members of certain minority groups as well as particular factors regarding sex regarding cultural mores. (Lauritsen 1994) Strain theories correspond to a now common view that individuals feelings of hopelessness and despair about their socioeconomic prospects lead to involvement in delinquency and adult crime. However, the subculture of delinquency may so effectively insulate participants from socioeconomically induced distress that these feelings may not be fully formed or expressed until later in the life course. (Hagan 1997: 128) By repressing these feeling the adolescent fosters growing feelings of anxiety and distress until at some point they overwhelm him or her and express themselves in a criminal way. Keep in mind that this is somewhat different than the psychopathology of say, a serial killer that has an antisocial personality disorder. While there are certainly conduct disorder traits here the psychopathology is more of a persecution complex that can be exacerbated by continual immersion in stressful experiences. (Giannangelo) There is also evidence that mortality rates are higher among groups exposed to greater levels of stress early in life: An alternative perspective, however, is that a non-trivial proportion of offenders may die prematurely because they want to do so. A strain-hazard model could, therefore, provide a useful conceptual framework for analyzing mortality patterns among offender who are not unambiguously committed to crime as a way of life. (Tremblay, Pierre& Paré 2003: 313) In regards to perceptions of justice and fair play in this strained cohort, it is often biased by constant imposition of rules that constrain the individual from achieving more innovative means of success. These constant struggles with authority and the lack of understanding by the justice system of the stressed motivations of these individuals has often lead to harsher and harsher treatment by the system. In this model the opposite result is often achieved and the individual frequently becomes more determined simply not to get caught in the future rather than put any effort towards rehabilitation. Equitable treatment would certainly reduce feelings of anger and frustration that contributed to this criminal behavior in the first place. "Fair treatment allows people to attribute legitimacy to authorities and creates a set of obligations to conform to their norms." (Piquero, Mulvey. Steinberg & Odgers 2005: 267) A positive promotion of the concept of justice and equitable treatment of the indivdual would go a long way to dispel some of the perceived strain that individual is under in attempting to achieve their goals. Strain theory also addresses the stressors developed within peer groups to conform to a created norm and thus create a sense of cohesion and adoption of an alternate extended family among the members. Especially prevalent now are the gangs that have virtually dominated the lower income strata of most urban environments. This pressure to conform adds another layer of strain and criminality to the behavior of juveniles and sets them more permanently on their way to more difficulties in adulthood. Parental control at this juncture may literally mean the difference between life and death for the child: Therefore, antisocial peers are a consequence of poor social control and not the cause of delinquent behavior. Others would argue that a delinquent peer group contributes to negative relationships with others brought about by the presentation of negatively valued stimuli and, in turn, this strain contributes to antisocial behavior. (Mills, Kroner & Mongrain 2005) These negative factors will most certainly first appear in the scholastic setting. If caught early enough by both teachers and parents, positive interventions can result in avoidance of misbehaviors. However, if no notice is taken and the smaller indiscretions are allowed to continue they will most certainly build over time and avalanche through the school setting and out into the world. (Leblanc, Vallieres & Mcduff, 1993) Positive role models would certainly help in these situations and go a long way to focus the perception of youth on the possibilities of achieving their goals ethically and legally. (Robert Merton 2003) Unfortunately they are often difficult to find in the media and often the more "exciting" negative role models are being extolled. Initially strain theory has been mostly associated with creation of the developing criminal from early childhood into adolescence and beyond. It has also been correlated primarily with cohorts that fall near or below the poverty line; in household family situations such as divorce, abuse etc; lower class neighborhoods with problems such as vandalism, vacant buildings, high crime rate; overcrowded and substandard school systems, etc. (Rebellon, & Gundy 2006). Criminal psychologists have used this to understand criminal behavior and create modified therapies to assist the offenders in rehabilitation. Emotions are more than psychological states. They are also reflections of culture and social structure...Feelings of despondency, depression, and despair are now understood to be so culture specific that guidelines for psychiatric evaluation recommend that cultural background be considered in diagnosing the emotional states of patients. By implication, subcultures can also shape emotions, but subcultural influences can be more difficult to discern because their expression is by definition detached from the cultural mainstream, emerging and diverging from the dominant culture in formally unexpected ways. (Hagan 1997: 130) For the criminologist, assessment and intervention are the primary goals in the use of strain theory. However, obviously this cannot be the only venue of understanding the criminal mind in all circumstance so the overall approach must certainly have more flexibility in order to respond and understand a wider spectrum of situations both psychological and social. Therefore, the criminal psychologist and criminologist must design programs that have a more comprehensive assessment of background and psycho-social involvement so interventions are both appropriate and successful. (Sullivan & Wilson 1995) It must be remembered that strain theory is a method by which intervention precedes prevention. That the only way to stop criminal from forming is by ameliorating early life stressors and other factors, or by giving juveniles skills, coping mechanisms or havens of refuge in order to battle their hostile psycho-social environment. List of References Benjamin, C. J. 1999. Mean Streets: Youth Crime and Homelessness. Canadian Journal of Criminology,Vol 413, pp 420. Featherstone, Richard 2003 Anomie and strain: context and consequences of merton’s two Theories. Sociological Inquiry Vol. 73 pp. 471-489, Giannangelo, Stephen J. 1996 The Psychopathology of serial murder a theory of violence. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers Hagan, John. 1997 Defiance and Despair: Subcultural and Structural Linkages between Delinquency and Despair in the Life Course. Social Forces. Vol.76 pp. 119-134 Hoffmann, John P. 2003 Contextual Analysis of Differential Association, Social Control, and Strain Theories of Delinquency. Social Forces; Vol. 81 pp. 753-785 Lauritsen, Janet L. 1994 Explaining Race and Gender Differences in Adolescent Sexual Behavior. Social Forces Vol. 72 pp.859-884 Leblanc, M., Vallieres, E., & Mcduff, P. 1993. The Prediction of Males Adolescent and Adult Offending from School Experience. Canadian Journal of Criminology, Vol. 354, pp.459-478. Mills, J. F., Kroner, D. G., & Mongrain, S. J. 2005 Deconstructing Criminal Networks: Intervening to Break Down Patterns of Criminal Associations. Corrections Today, Vol. 67, pp. 46+. Piquero, A. R., Fagan, J., Mulvey, E. P., Steinberg, L., & Odgers, C. 2005. Developmental Trajectories of Legal Socialization among Serious Adolescent Offenders. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 961 pp.267+. Rebellon, Cesar J. & Gundy, Karen Van. 2006 Can social psychological delinquency theory explain the link between marijuana and other illicit drug use? A Longitudinal analysis of the gateway hypothesis. Journal of Drug Issues; Vol. 36 pp.515-539 Robert Merton. 2003 Economist; 15 March 2003: pp. 81-81, Sullivan, Richard & Wilson, Marcia. 1995 New directions for research in prevention and treatment of delinquency: A review and proposal. Adolescence; Vol. 30 pp.1 Tittle, C. R., & Grasmick, H. G. 1997. Criminal Behavior and Age: A Test of Three Provocative Hypothesis. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, Vol. 881, pp. 309- 342. Tremblay, Pierre& Paré, Paul-Philippe. 2003 Crime and Destiny: Patterns in Serious Offenders Mortality Rates. Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice. Vol.45 pp.299- 326 Read More