History of Education In America - Essay Example

History of Education In America: Pulliam and Van Patten Word Count: 2,955 Page Count: 11 + cover Introduction This paper gives an overview of the book by John D. Pulliam and James Van Patten, History of Education in America. From the early Greek teachings to education of modern times, school has been an important facet of any civilized culture. Today's societal demands are numerous and multicultural as the people of the world get deeper into globalization. To compete in the workplace, to succeed, and to influence the future requires an increasingly complex form of education. Relatively speaking, it has always been this way as cultures of the world have had to interact socially and economically. The better one's education, the more likely they were to do well in business and society, and the more opportunities they would have. But in this electronic society of high technology, fast communications and carbon-dating systems, education is a necessity of life, not just an employment tool or a way of achieving status. The solutions of the future will depend on the education of today's students. Teachers must be able to adapt also and know what the relationships of educational institutions are to society. Society and Education: Communities and values External factors affecting the level of education of people over the centuries include the Civil War, the Depression of 1929, World War II, and September 11. "History is the best tool we have for making sense of incomprehensible events." (pg. 9) Learning about the Assassins of 1090 in Persia and Syria gives us some sense of reason for the attacks on Americans today. Given people's short memory for historical events, it is vital to learn that events that occurred centuries ago can impact events of today. And understanding can be part of the healing process when 'normal' education has been disrupted by external factors. Social change has come slowly throughout most of human history. With slower changes came more capacity to adapt. Farming was one of the greatest changes and was the cornerstone for the creation of civilizations of today. With "farmers" came other classes of people who did not need to deal with finding or growing their own foods. People could devote more of their time to other interests such as science, social order, mechanics, and art. This division of labor has increased to a point that many people no longer know how to find or process their own foods, and just buy what they need. Despite this there is "cultural lag" (pg. 13) that shows a maladjustment by some parts of society in their educational institutions when changes in technology, for instance, occur. The more conservative and traditional sectors "lag" at these times, unwilling or unable to keep up. There are also problems with misconceptions that arise from misinformation. This type of "lag" can cause people to accept "factual" evidence that is later found to be untrue. (pg 13). The concept that there is empty "space" between the particles of an atom is being rejected by those who study physics today. However, the original concept will remain part of current curriculums until some time in the future, as will many other revised facts. Personal and societal values enter into every culture's form of education, even though they are constantly changing also, according to Ralph Linton, anthropologist. Many communities reject alternate thinking about religions, lifestyles, politics, etc. Today's core values, in America, are considered small by contrast to previous eras due to the complexity of this society. Instead of a predominant religion presiding over a community's affairs, for instance, a quorum has to be considered in order to enact laws that reflect the moral standards - such as those against killing others. So, too, are the opinions of many factions considered by educational institutions before deciding how they will proceed. The subject of corporeal punishment in schools is one that people used to regard as the school's choice but is now considered undesirable, for instance. The interpretation of history also changes. "New evidence forces us to reconsider history at all stages." (pg. 17) So history is difficult to define sometimes. Alternate viewpoints must be considered. Historical records are multiplying exponentially so that trying to keep track of more recent changes is becoming much more difficult. The systematic study of the history of education is a fairly recent thing, encompassing about half of the last century. Most studies of education's history have been for the purpose of improving education, rather than just studying it. In this way, historical studies have had interpretations to support programs of change. Recent changes in education have also impacted the way the history of education has been studied, such as the involvement of the government and the increased amount of scientific activity. (pg. 19) American education stems from 'Western' thinking as it dates back to Greece and Rome. The Renaissance impacted western thinking by removing the religious viewpoints, somewhat, and replacing them with secular ones. Science, once it got past its denouncements from religions, has affected education more than anything else with its methodologies, systems, facts, etc. The Reformation caused religion to become a focus again but was countermanded by other forces, such as capitalism. (pg. 23) Studies in sociology, psychology and philosophy also have tried to separate the objective from the subjective in education. Philosophy and Education "The conception of reality reflected in the curriculum and the experiences of the student are paramount." (pg 31) Teachers have to be concerned with teaching values and "what is true". Of course, what is true is not always known and education has offered the choices up for debate, discussion, and a wider perspective for the student. Various philosophies of education have been perennialism, idealism, realism, pragmatism, reconstructionism and protest philosophy (behaviorism, existentialism, postmodernism). (pg. 33) Perennialism is intellectual attainment and the search for truth as is taught through the Classics and Liberal Arts. Idealism, or essentialism, is that all material things are explainable, and is taught through Humanities. Realism, also essentialism, suggests that propositions are only true if they correspond with known facts, such as those in Math and Science. Pragmatism concerns itself with things that work, are experimental and democratic, and revolves around the student's concerns. Reconstructionism seeks to reconstruct society through education, as through Political Science. Protest philosophy centers on the importance of the individual and rejects logic and reason, according to the chart on page 33 of this text. The way that these philosophies are tested, and their outcomes in the student, are very different. Perennialism and Idealism tend to grade a student from essays, and develop the student into an "intellectual", which has been criticized as being elitist. Realism and pragmatism requires finished objectives and problem-solving as its mode of testing, and creates functional students. Reconstructionism expects activism from its students and may not test at all. Protest philosophy is more personally motivated, individually monitored and develops the artistic, independent thinker, as well as the nonconformist. (pg. 35) Most current higher educations have programs designed to mix these philosophies so as to develop a rounded education and person, since most people are a combination of these philosophies anyway. The authors state that analytic professors challenge the politics of the "Lake Woebegone sort" (that all students should be better than average.) The idea that "Lake Woebegone sorts" have no concept of logic or reality is implied. Because of all the latest technology, there has been a stronger division between business-minded students and those in liberal arts or humanities schools. The authors state that protest philosophy challenges the "ordered universe" notions. Behaviorism is involved with the psychology of education and brings up good questions that a teacher should consider. Environmental forces are considered the prevailing influence on students. The studies of B. F. Skinner are examined as an example of behaviorism, but there have been decades of behavioralists who have contributed important findings, especially in light of the Columbine tragedies, that bear out much of the environmental influences. The conditioning of a child prior to their entering the school system does account for much of his behavioral patterns and learning abilities. Future philosophies will be focusing on the speed of change that is now occurring and trying to understand its impact on teaching and learning. Social concepts are also of great importance now as they evolve. (pg. 55) Colonial Education In the colonial days of America, the ideas of equality of men did not exist, as there were strong separations between social classes. Women and girls were not considered their own persons. Native Americans were thought to be incapable of education. Handicapped people were ignored. Religion was dominant in colonial society and in their schools. Schools copied European models of teaching. Catholics built their monasteries and convents, based on French and Spanish schools. Predictable stresses among the colonies at this time forced some changes to their education methods. Financial problems, illness, isolation and other factors led to this. The growing independence from Britain showed itself in the schools as well. In the southern colonies, there was more allegiance to the British but less concern for religious teaching. A level of pragmaticism was dominant, and class status decided who got an education. Workers were not expected to become educated. The middle colonies of Delaware, NJ, NY and Pa. had more disparity of religion than other factors of their diverse nationalities. This led to more tolerant attitudes. The text states that Quaker were "theoretically opposed to persecution", which must mean that they did not intend to persecute anyone for their religious differences. The book states that New England is largely responsible for significant growth in education (pg. 82) since these colonies had more interest in universal education. This arose from occupations such as shipbuilding and manufacturing that required employees who could run businesses. Despite common beliefs about the Puritans' fight for religious freedom, they did not allow much of this within their schools. (pg. 94). But laws were passed to require schooling for all children, and to provide schools. Within these schools, Puritan values were about respect, discipline, neatness, personal responsibility, honesty, patriotism, excellence and obeying rules. Schools of today largely maintain these same values. Today's values come from diverse family units, economic status, cultural influences and religions but generally are in agreement about the values that the Puritans had. People who are against the public school system's values often start or use private schooling due to state voucher systems. (pg. 85) Democratic Ideals After the American Revolution, democratic ideals helped bring about changes in the educational system. Academies grew to teach practical subjects, vocational subjects such as bookkeeping and surveying. With the growth of capitalism and the government agencies that were created, education continued to grow at an accelerated rate, with libraries being built throughout the colonies. English philosopher, John Locke, contributed to the thinking of this time with his ideas about inalienable rights and a government of the people. These were in conjunction with Benjamin Franklin's ideas of education for the masses and his interest in the sciences. (pg. 106) Another contributor was John Amos Comenius, a bishop and writer of textbooks. He developed the method of grading schools. The "scientific revolution of 17th century Europe" had a long lasting impact on American education. Referred to as the Enlightenment, it was "the liberation of man from his self-caused state of minority." (pg. 108) Distrust of monarchy rule helped lead the colonies to their own independence, and with it new ways of thinking. After the war, there was a time of greater illiteracy due to the lack of schools, books and teachers; these had come from Britain or could not be afforded. The 1800's The eighteenth century saw the first school for the deaf, the first high school, the first school for the blind and schooling for the mentally retarded. The Industrial Revolution brought machines and more divisiveness between areas with industry and those without. Many parts of the United States had progressed toward universal schooling while others remained status-oriented. With an increase in the citizens' political power came more lobbying for schools in all areas. Even the new frontiersmen, with their rough existence, desired education for their children. (pg. 132) From 1812-1865 an era called the "common school revival" became an ideal to build the democracy upon. (pg. 133) The curriculum of these schools began to include subjects such as geography, higher math and American history. Higher education facilities developed with Dartmouth heading up the issue of public or private control of the colleges. The 1818 decision to allow private schools their dominion caused state-run universities to be chartered. (pg. 137) Support of public education was a growing part of the political scene, and also of the Western Literary Institute. A class of public educators and reformers made headway into education issues. Horace Mann and James Carter worked to create the Board of Education in Massachusetts. But the influence of European schooling continued to be a strong component in the development of American schools, and shaped primary schools, kindergartens and educational theory. Rousseau's ideas about the natural development of a child seemed to be the most influential. Inhibited Southern development of education has historically excluded African-Americans. The educational system in the South after the Civil War was eroded by the losses they endured and the lack of civil authority. (pg. 159) The South was bankrupt and people who had been going to school could not afford to for some time. The Blair Bill of 1882 gave federal aid to states with educational needs. Private agencies aided schools in the South through philanthropists such as George Peabody. The Industrial Revolution tended to overuse child labor. Agriculture became agribusiness. The character of immigrants changed from North European to everywhere else. Altogether, these changes impacted education by challenging the system, such as it was, to work harder at educating everyone. Vocational and Industrial Education Apprenticeship has been around a lot longer for the masses than formal schooling. (pg. 167) In the 1400's this was the method used to teach Leonardo daVinci how to paint and sculpt. As formal education increased in the United States, vocational or manual training was integrated into it. Teacher Education (1865-1918) In Britain today, there are many levels of certification to become a teacher. It does not always require a college level education. This was also true in colonial times and up to about World War I when curriculums began demanding higher education for their instructors. (pg. 174) Today most teaching jobs require at least a bachelors degree, and most a masters degree. Professional training was improved by Edward Sheldon in 1859 through a program called Pestalozzi, that inspired the state of New York to create a teacher-training school at Oswego. Educating teachers in college began in 1831 in Pennsylvania. (pg. 175) Present day education In 1930 the school year was mandated to be 172 days with compulsory attendance in all states of America. Military training programs began in 1941. The G.I. Bill that paid for college tuition was passed in 1944. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act was passed in 1965. Head Start began in 1965 as well. The Civil Rights movement of the '60's helped minorities, particularly African-Americans in the South, receive their education without segregation. Those with disabilities were provided education through Public Law 94-142 in 1975. The Secretary of Education became a federal cabinet post in 1979. The 1990's saw "massive educational reforms in most states." (pg. 187) The past half century has been an ongoing battle to fund public school systems. Every state has had to budget special monies to accommodate the growing needs of schools. In the '90's technology introduced personal computers into homes and schools with a succession of computer programs for teaching staff to use. The increases in attendance in schools across the country have required constant building and rebuilding of schools and school facilities. Curriculums now incorporate as many non-scholarly programs as scholarly ones, such as sports and art, which use more money. The dynamics of teacher-student relationships have been studied extensively to improve the quality of teaching, and these studies have cost money. There is still a large level of disparity between school systems, where some are flourishing and are state-of-the-art, while others operate at Third-World levels with inadequate facilities and low-paid teaching staff. The "No Child Left Behind" program that the current administration has adopted is leaving many behind while educators struggle to find solutions to falling grade levels and lack of participation in intellectual arenas. Sports have become the focus of many schools and offer some economic aid to them. But junior and community colleges have blossomed, leaping in number from less than one million in the 1960's to over 6 million now. They offer students vocational training and certification programs that are often more useful to students for their immediate future. (pg. 201) Experiments in education have ranged from John Dewey's experimental school in 1916 to the Progressive Education Association (1919-1955) to the equal opportunity concerns of the 1960's to progressive programs of today. Many experiments have served as models that educators have used. Today's technology has introduced programs such as distance learning, on-line learning, new laboratory techniques and research, and team teaching. (pg. 218) The "New Century" finds schools using more standardized measurements of a student's progress, and state-run data tracking. (pg. 220) There is a need for schools to be run more professionally and efficiently. Competing in the world market is requiring a return to bilingualism that has been common in Europe and many other countries. As more of the world becomes democratic, the schools will reflect the values of a democratic society. Reference: Pulliam, J.D. and Van Patten, J. J. (2003) History of Education in America. Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey. 7th edition pp. 1-225. Read More