Community Development in the UK - Term Paper Example

COMMUNITY WORK INTRODUCTION: “Community work is the process of assisting people to improve their own communities by undertaking collective action”. The essence of community work is to ensure that people as residents of geographical communities, or as members of disadvantaged groups such as ethnic minorities or people with learning difficulties get a better deal, states Twelvetrees (2001: 1). Another definition of community work has been given by Smith (2006: infed web site) as “work initiatives primarily aimed at helping people within a local community to identify social needs, to consider the most effective ways of meeting these and to set about doing so, in so far as their available resources permit”. In community work a set of values are used along with related techniques, skills and approaches. The values are to do with justice, democracy, respect, love, empowering, and “getting a better deal” for people who are in some way disadvantaged. The techniques include establishing relationships with such people, understanding how they see the world, finding ways to assist them to help themselves, and taking action to help them (Twelvetrees, 2001: 9). DISCUSSION: Community work in the United Kingdom: The term “community development” which is often synonymous with “community work” was adopted by many U.K. workers for projects that focused on local neighbourhood groups to set and meet their own needs, according to Smith (2006: infed web site). Community workers may be politically motivated from a socialist or feminist analysis of society, as in Britain during the 1970s and 1980s. On the other hand they may have simpler values such as concern about making the existing system work better for the poor, or intention to do some good in the world, states Twelvetrees (2001: 9). State-sponsored community work remains as a combination of care, economic development and service delivery improvement work, that developed during the 1980s and 1990s. Concern to cultivate community participation and local group life in England and Wales were translated into action by churches and religious groups (Smith, 2006: infed). Whatever their values, goals and existing skills, community workers must be prepared to learn new approaches, and utilize them in different circumstances to make community work more strategic, long-term and integral to the organizations that deliver it (Twelvetrees, 2001: 10-11). Models of Community Work: In the practice of community work, certain models are put to use, for achieving sustainable outcomes. Examples are: community action, community care, community development, community planning, community education, etc. Community action is a model of community work. The key features of community action are: settings, problem definitions, goals, strategies and the roles of local activists and professional change agents (Bryant, 1972: 206). Community action can refer to a diverse range of initiatives, such as neighbourhood self help groups, organizations representing consumer interests, protest or action groups focused around issues such as discrimination, housing, employment, etc, work of community participants in statutory policy making and service implementation, and statutory community programmes designed to improve the accessibility of social services. Hodge (1970) states that in community action, conflict is used as a tactical force. The individual aims to verbalize discontent, articulate grievances, to form a pressure group with which to confront authority in a militant struggle for righting wrongs, gaining power, acquiring new resources and better services or amenities. Freedom from Oppression: This concept is related to social justice, which is an important principle of community work. Freire (1970: 4) states that humanization is thwarted by injustice, exploitation, oppression and the violence of the oppressors. It is affirmed by the yearning of the oppressed for freedom and justice, and by their struggle to recover their lost humanity. Paulo Freire stated in his book that the pedagogy of the oppressed is one “which must be forged with the oppressed, (be they individuals or entire groups) in their incessant struggle to regain their humanity. From reflecting on oppression and its causes by the oppressed, will come their liberation” (Palmer, et al, 2001: 128). Freire’s concept of conscientization was a process of becoming aware of social realities and his methodology was based on a philosophy of social science and social theory (Morrow and Torres, 2002: 6). SEGREGATION: A Case Study of Rosa Parks’ Bus Incident: The battle over segregation was waged principally over education and had started earlier with legal challenges to the system in several states in America. The old principle of “separate but equal” facilities for whites and blacks, endorsed by the Supreme Court in 1896, had been rejected by the court in 1954, initiating desegregation in schools (Magazine Article in History Today, 2006: 63). In Montgomery, on December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a forty-two year old African seamstress boarded a bus for home, from work. She was tired, her feet hurt, and she sat down on the first seat of the Negro back section of Montgomery’s segregated Cleveland Avenue Bus. The law throughout the South’s segregated bus systems stated that the black sat in the back half of the bus. If the white section in the front half filled, then the black had to surrender their seat in the back section (Herman, 1999: 127). The blacks were not treated with respect, and ill-treatment and abuse were common experiences for them in the Montgomery bus lines. Rosa Parks’ bus had filled. The bus operator ordered her to stand up and to move back in order that boarding white passengers might be seated. Since it was the Christmas shopping season, there were no other vacant seats that Friday. Like Gandhi decades before her in South Africa, Rosa Parks quietly refused to give up her seat (Herman, 1999: 127). Her action, apparently, was spontaneous: she said her feet were tired. The bus stopped and she was arrested and fined $14 (History Today, 2006: 63). The Montgomery Bus Boycott: Four days after the above incident, on December 5, 1955, after lengthy discussions, Montgomerys black leaders called for a boycott of the citys buses. The recently appointed pastor of the Baptist church in Dexter Avenue, Reverend Martin Luther King Junior, was picked to head a committee to run the boycott and secure publicity. Then virtually unknown, he was superbly suited to the task, and his efforts resulted in a notable victory in the civil rights battle and a worldwide reputation for Martin Luther King (History Today, 2006: 63). It was not the first such boycott. Non-violent direct action in opposing segregation had been recommended as early as 1942 by the Congress of Racial Equality and later in 1953 in a successful bus boycott in Louisiana (Herman, 1999: 127). Implementing the Models of Community Action and Participation: towards Achieving the Principle of Social Justice in Montgomery: The Africans were asked to stop riding city buses and to find alternate means of transportation. Martin Luther King who was elected President of the Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) led the strike against the buses and took the initiative to find substitute transportation for 17, 500 former bus riders. Many Africans decided to walk, when alternate transportation was not available. The strike had far broader implications because other grievances such as employment of Africans in city jobs, etc were presented by King and the MIA to the city of Montgomery (Herman, 1999: 127). White leaders tried their level best to curb the blacks from continuing their bus boycott. Martin Luther Kings principle of non-violence as “the most potent technique for oppressed people” was proving effective in Montgomery. More than 90 per cent of Montgomery blacks joined the boycott, which was copied elsewhere in the South. Black people united to maintain the boycott: they formed car pools to get to work or walked. The city of Montgomery fought back against the blacks, with injunctions and arrests: accusing those waiting for rides of loitering and those riding in car-pools of hitch-hiking. Standing together for the first time, without retaliation or violence, refusing to be intimidated by beatings, arrests and harrassment from the racists, the city and the police, the Africans found a new sense of pride, worth, dignity, and a new sense of community (Herman, 1999: 127). King’s arrest, imposition of fine, and other set-backs did not deter him from leading the struggle against segregation. After initial difficulties in implementing government policy of desegregation, in June the federal district court in Montgomery ruled that the citys segregation ordinances were unconstitutional (History Today, 2006: 63). The following month segregation in buses officially ended in Montgomery. On December 21, the MIA ended the boycott (Herman, 1999: 128). The model of community action employed by the Africans in Montgomery, is supported by Martin Luther King’s emphasis on non-violence in the struggle for freedom which is echoed in the philosophy of Paulo Freire: “the great humanistic and historic task of the oppressed is to liberate themselves and their oppressors as well” (Freire, 1970: 5). Conversely, Bryant (1972: 206), states that the political definitions of problems and organizing the community for gaining equality or power, requires community action to use conflict as a strategy for achieving change. Social Justice as One of the Key Principles of Community Work: Among the core principles of community work are: social justice, self determination, participation in community development practice, sustainable community, working collectively, social capital and capacity building. Having a vision for the future and reflective practice for positive social change, are also important principles in community work (Munford, et al, 2005: 99). All these key concepts are observed to be present in the bus boycott action for social justice. In community work, an important requirement is: identifying policies and practices that require transformation for achieving sustainability and social change. The Bus Boycott as an Example of Community Work: From Rosa Parks’ episode based on segregation, and the resulting bus boycott, community work can be defined as all the individuals in a community working together for social justice and equality, by taking a firm stand against oppressors while maintaining non-violent and peaceful methods for achieving sustainable results. The change agent was initially Rosa Parks, and then Martin Luther King who led the struggle against segregation. The models of community work that can be identified in the bus boycott are: 1) Community education since all the members of the black community in Montgomery had to be alerted and informed about the injustice of segregation in bus seating, 2) Community action which called for all African bus-riders to take alternative transport or walk, 3) Community development was the main goal for the struggle against racism and segregation. 4) The political dimension of the bus boycott is that “community action is never likely on its own to achieve or sustain mass political mobilization. That depends on the wider socialist movement in which community action has only a small but potentially significant part to play” (Jacobs,1984: 220-221). The community skills that were used during the boycott were: abilityof maintaining unity of purpose and action in participating in the bus boycott, ability to seek and find alternative methods of transportation and the determination to walk the entire distance for the bus-riders, and negotiation with authorities such as the federal district court for ending the policy of segregation. The leadership of Martin Luther King was very important, as his principle of non-violence enabled the black community of Montgomery to achieve a sustainable victory. Also, his leadership and political standing helped the movement against segregation to spread and establish itself all over the country. CONCLUSION: The determination shown by Rosa Parks against oppression and segregation, was echoed by all the members of the African community in Montgomery. Though they had no political or social power, through unity and determination under the leadership of Martin Luther King, they gained the strength to fight for their civil rights. The bus boycott remains as one of the important events in America’s history, since it initiated social change for the black community. The goals of the civil rights movement were liberation and equality, which the blacks achieved to a great extent, and continue to struggle for in current times also. According to Popple (2000: 5), the underlying aim in community work is an increase in the members’ confidence and skill resulting in the community’s progress on a long-term basis. ------------------ooooooooooooooooo--------------- REFERENCES Bryant, Richard. (1972). “Community Action”. British Journal of Social Work, 1972, Vol.2: pp.205-215. Freire, Paulo. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. Herman, Arthur L. (1999). Community, Violence and Peace: Aldo Leopald, Mohandas K. Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr. New York: Suny Press. Hodge, P. (1970). “The future of community development”, in Robson, W. A. and Crick,B. (eds.), The Future of the Social Services, United Kingdom: Penguin Books. Jacobs, Sidney. (1984). “Community Action and the Building of Socialism from Below: A Defence of the Non-Directive Approach”. Community Development Journal, 1984, Vol.19, No.4 Magazine Article, “Alabama Bus Segregation Ended: November 13th, 1956”. History Today, November 2006, Vol.56, Issue 11: p.63. Munford, Robyn; O’Donoghue, Kieran; Nash, Mary (2005). Social Work Theories in Action. United Kingdom: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Palmer, Joy A; Cooper, David Edward; Bresler, Liora. (2001). Fifty Modern Thinkers on Education: from Piaget to the Present. London: Routledge. Popple, Keith. (2000). Analysing Community Work. England: Open University Press. Smith, Mark K. (2006) “Community Development”, The Encyclopedia of Informal Education, Web site: www.infed.org/community/b-comdv.htm. (Retrieved on 28th May, 2007). Smith, M. K. (2006) “Community work”, The Encyclopedia of Informal Education, Web site: www.infed.org/community/b-comwrk.htm. (Retrieved on 28th May, 2007). Twelvetrees, Alan. (2001). Community Work. Third Edition. United Kingdom: Palgrave MacMillan. Read More