Chinese Culture and its Impact on East Asia - Essay Example

Exporting china: Chinese culture and its impact on East Asia China, the Middle Kingdom, is one of the oldest civilizations, and one that has been able to maintain continuity, even though there have been periodic social spasms in the society. The Chinese, for many centuries, had only to look around themselves to appreciate their own greatness. Whether in the fields of art and painting, ceramics, literature or scholarship, the Chinese knew that they were probably the best of the best. Though this notion was shattered in later years when Western technology began its ascendancy, China has nevertheless had an enormous impact over a large portion of the planet, in particular, among its neighbours in East Asia. Although some persist in thinking of China as a nation without religion those who have studied China well know that beyond Confucianism, which spread to Korea and Japan; Daoism, and Buddhism, all of which are ingrained in Chinese society, have impacted many others outside of China thanks to those Chinese families that left their homeland to settle in other parts of Asia such as Thailand, Singapore, and Malaysia. Confucius is often hailed as China’s greatest teacher and he very well may be because the teachings of Confucius, like those of other great moral teachers such as Mohammed and Jesus, have endured. Confucius, however, was not the starting point of Chinese moral philosophy or religion. In fact, prior to Confucius, there had been a number of ethical and moral strands. This, however, is not to take away the reality that Confucius has had a much more far reaching effect than any of those who might have lived by the precepts that he made famous such as the importance of self-cultivation, respect for hierarchy, and the importance of harmony in society. In some of the earliest writings on virtue, and in such writings as the Wuxing, which came from Guodian tomb, around 300 B.C.E., among the beliefs expressed were that “the virtues manifest themselves through physiological changes in the body that can be observed by others” (Slingerland 2006 694). In other words, the cultivation of the proper virtues was expected to be reflected somehow in the person’s bearing. This may not be as strange as it might now appear because in many other religions those who have cultivated themselves to a high level of moral and spiritual development are often said to have a special glow. In any case, Confucius was probably more interested in the practical aspects of virtue as he sought to impart knowledge that would benefit not only those who were in positions of leadership but also the population as a whole. For the society as a whole, Confucius emphasized harmony but this was not something that one expected to arise out of thin air. Each individual had a part to play by noting his or her place in the society and giving respect to those for whom such respect was due: children obeying their parents, subjects obeying their ruler, and wife respecting the husband. Though some of the “greatest” religions have not been unknown to butcher those of other religions because of their difference, in China, religion did not manifest itself in such alarming cruelty to others. Rather, the understanding that harmony was useful for all members of society made it possible for those who subscribed to Confucian ethics, those who had adopted the Buddhist philosophy from India, and those who adhered to a Daoist worldview to live in harmony. As Michael True writes in the article “Eastern religions offer insight in the search for life’s meaning, “Liberation from fear and domination, according to the prophets, is not ego, wealth and power, but gentleness, fairness and compassion. These qualities are recommended by Western religions, but hey tend to be more integral to the psychology of Eastern religions” (True 2006 A15). While Confucianism was rejected to some extent when the Communists took over power in China in 1949, the philosophy and religion is being given the red carpet in recent years. The establishment of the Confucianism School in Qufu, the birthplace of Confucius, is part of the efforts to revive the Master’s teachings. Courses in the school, “include reading and reciting Confucianism’s “bibles” known as Four Books and Five Classics. These books were once the basis for a required course in China’s universities” (Wang 2006 3). As a student of the above mentioned institute, Gao Yuanxiang notes, “Some say Confucianism is irrelevant to modern society…But its ideology still influences every Chinese. It’s still deep in our blood and flesh. Many people just don’t always realize it” (Wang 2006 3). Even the Chinese Central government’s recent emphasis on harmony, not surprisingly, goes back to Confucius and Confucianism. If Confucianism is indeed in the blood of every Chinese then it should not come a surprise that Confucianism and the world view it has given Chinese people has extended beyond the shores of China. While Confucianism was attacked during the Cultural Revolution in China between 1966 and 1976, in the 1980s, in particular, it began to attract the attention of scholars and laymen alike. In fact, over the past 1000 years, other nations in Asia have benefited from the Confucian worldview at their shores. For some, Confucianism helps to offer a moral centre for individuals, families, and nations as a whole. In fact, in recent years, for those who study Confucianism, the connection is increasingly being made that it is not a religion or philosophy that is relevant only to China or to Chinese people alone. For example, Dr. Tu Weiming who teaches Confucianism at Harvard points out that “at Harvard, people approach Chinese philosophy or Confucianism globally, so they are aware not only about what’s going on in China, but also in Japan, in Europe, in the Republic of Korea, and of course in North America” (“Harvard professor discusses Confucianism in contemporary world 2005 13). Hahm Chaibong, in the report, “The Ironies of Confucianism,” focuses on the effect that Confucianism has had on societies such as Taiwan, the two Koreas, Vietnam, and Singapore, noting that these have all “succeeded in establishing powerful, centralized, bureaucratic states undergirded by robust national sentiments” (Chaibong 2004 93). All of these societies have made valiant efforts to succeed as a nation, very much after the fashion of Confucius, who emphasized the importance of family and the linkages that people had with one another in society. In fact, other than Europe and North America, East Asia has become the most successful part of the globe in recent decades, and some see the hand of Confucius in this sweeping success. As Chaibong notes, “Questions of causation are notoriously slippery, but no one can deny that there is a strong observed correlation between a society-wide Confucian legacy and a capacity for rapid and sustained economic development…the Confucian emphasis on loyalty and tradition of strong centralized bureaucratic rule, based upon relatively meritocratic civil service examinations, has buttressed modern nation-states” (Chaibong 2004 93). When people in a society know that their abilities will be appreciated and that they are going to be judged by their intellectual capacities and loyalty they are likely to give their best. They know that such loyalty and service will be reciprocated. For hundreds of years, the Chinese used civil service examinations to seek out the best of the breed in the society and to give them stewardship of the masses and of public works and governance. This pattern, with variations was followed in Korea, Japan, and in recent years, in countries such as Singapore where meritocracy itself has been raised almost to the status of a national religion! It must be noted that China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, all of which were proud adherents of Confucianism initially resisted Western encroachment because they were proud of the values that permeated their society and fearful of any new forms of outlook that would upset this system. It would be a mistake to assume that Confucianism, despite its virtues, has always been seen as being a positive hallmark of Asia. In fact, many blamed Confucianism at times for its preference for looking back towards ancient times for guidance rather than looking to the present realities and future possibilities as a guide to living. As Chaibong explains of the growing Western domination in Asia in the 18th and 19th centuries, “Confucian institutions and values, many critics claimed, blocked the kinds of sweeping changes that would have made resistance feasible, and that arguably saved Japan from foreign domination” (Chaibong 2004 93). On the one hand, Confucianism valued the preservation of tradition which would have meant holding on to the old at all costs. On the other hand, Confucianism emphasizes the need for endless self-cultivation which means that opening up to the West and learning from these other societies what might have been lacking in Asian societies would not necessarily have been against the basic tenets of Confucianism. Perhaps, it was up to every generation to seek the deeper meaning in the words of such masters as Confucius. Though some people have wrestled with the concept of religion as it relates to Confucianism, more and more scholars see no other way of characterizing it. As Chaibong explains, the foundations upon which Confucianism rests are the extended family and the state (Chaibong 2004 93). Those who held top official titles in the state, whether in China, Korea or Japan, were also the heads of their families and top students of Confucianism. “The family’s due is filial reverence (xiao in Chinese, hyo in Korean, and kou in Japanese). These virtues of filiopiety and loyalty are arguably the two Confucian desiderata par excellence, the values that give life to the family and the polity. Confucianism recognizes no realm separate from the family and the state that can be enshrined in a separate institution and guarded by an independent clergy” (Chaibong 2004 93). Unlike the Anglican or Roman Catholic churches, Confucianism was not set up as a church as such. Even so, they permeated the nation and the institutions that nurtured the state and its people. For Confucianism, respect for elders is very important. The reverence shown to ancestors reflects the importance of families to the whole Confucian ideal. The head of the family was to honour ancestors and take care to protect the family in every way, including physical and social well-being. The patriarch of the family also made sure that necessary rituals were practiced. This included the practice of sweeping over the graves of ancestors, a practice that has taken root in Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and indeed everywhere Chinese and Confucianism have taken root. But Confucianism did not have individual priests to fight for its preservation at all costs. It endured in the hearts and minds and way of life of the people, and though this may have been a weakness, this may also be the very reason for which Confucianism has been able to enjoy a resurgence of sorts when the truth is that it may not have gone anywhere at all considering that it lived in the sinews of people scattered all over Asia and around the world. In Confucian societies, the lack of an organized church made the state itself the protector and promoter of Confucian values. With its emphasis on authority it is really not surprising that Confucianism has thrived under totalitarian regimes. But the monarchies that made use of Confucianism to bolster their positions and to reign over their subjects always had to remember that the real guardians of culture were the literati. For those societies that have understood the importance of learning as Confucius urged it is hardly surprising that the societies have been transformed. But learning, even under the best of circumstances requires patience, self-denial, and persistence, qualities that Confucian societies teach and cultivate in abundance. If Confucianism is identified very closely with China it should not be surprising if Buddhism and Daoism also hold treasured spots as part of Chinese religious experience. Though Buddhism came to China from India, the Chinese did not remain passive to it. They studied it and made it part of their way of life. Of course, there are aspects of Buddhism that some Chinese did not fully appreciate such as the importance of monastic life. But some Chinese subscribed fully to that way of life, leaving the others for whom family life was the essence of life itself to continue to cherish and promote this ideal. It must also be noted that if Buddhism influenced the Chinese then the Chinese also put their stamp on Buddhism. Over time, China itself became a great center of learning for Buddhism, which is why Korean and Japanese Buddhist learners often went to China rather than India to acquaint themselves with a deeper knowledge of Buddhism. The Chinese also extended the discussions on Buddhism as they sought to not only understand what they had learned from Indian scholars but to extend it and make it relevant to their own society. Buddhism, with its emphasis on kindness to all sentient beings, would seem to have complemented the understanding of Confucianism that permeated Chinese society. This may explain to some extent why the two worldviews or religions did not threaten to split Chinese society. Daoism is another philosophical tradition that flourished in China for centuries and has been revived after almost suffering a near death from neglect. The Daoist canon, known as Zhengtong Daozang, which dates to around 1445 reveals elements that permeated the religion, including philosophy, sacred geography, longevity techniques, divination, and alchemy (Kohn 2005 64). The Taoists, who had temples and monasteries also believed in self-cultivation and the leaders and scholars of Daoism left behind a formidable array of texts, some of which were directed to adherents and others to the state or to laymen. During the upheavals of the late 19th century and early 20th century, Daoism, under its leading exponent at the time Chen Yingming, continued to thrive. The “Immortals” learning (xian xue) served as a critical motivating element for many people who were confused by the convulsions then facing Chinese society. “It redefined Daoism as centered on inner alchemy (neidan), the Daoist meditative techniques evolved during the Tang-Song period. Consistent with their nationalist vision, Chen claimed Daoism as the source of Chinese cultural essence by locating its origin in the Yellow Emperor legend” (Liu 2001). In its latter incarnation, Daoism emphasized education and many of its adherents went on to study modern medicine, business, and science (Liu 2001). Also, fellowship rather than discipleship were emphasized. As Chinese streamed away from China in the upheavals that gripped the country at the turn of the 20th century, some may have carried these concepts to their new destinations whether these were Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, the United States, Canada, or the Philippines. Even as Chinese have spread around the globe, some of these are influenced by the teachings of Lao Tzu and Chuan Tzu whose writings laid the foundation for the development of Taoism in later years (Kam-shing 2005 35). While family holds a primary place in Chinese life, which obviously recognizes the need for parents to take good care of their children and their elderly parents, Taoism notes that wealth and attainment are perishable and that love of self is dangerous. But Taoism’s greatest lessons, in particular for those who had to leave home and hearth and take their chances thousands of miles away from home may have been the understanding that “calamity is often a fortune under disguise. What one calls fortune is often a call of calamity…The good may turn out to be evil” (Lao Tzu, chap 58, translated by Cheng, 1995; cited in Kam-shing 2005 35). Such a worldview would have allowed those who were leaving the homes that they loved not just in terms of the tragedy such an experience held but also to see that there were possibilities that were yet to reveal themselves. Materialism was not important to Daoism, which raises the question of how many Chinese have become so successful whether in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, or the United States. It must be noted that there have been many competing ideologies and philosophies that have impinged on the Chinese mind. Of these, perhaps Confucianism may be the strongest as many Chinese are not even aware that they are Confucianists by the way they live their lives, in their attachment to family, and the feeling that they have a duty to their kith and kin. Confucianism also emphasizes education, learning, and perseverance, all of which can contribute greatly to success. Even though Buddhism is not known for promoting wealth and success, Buddhists temples, in Japan and elsewhere have not been unknown to display opulence and elegance in equal measure. And with Daoism, which also seeks to suppress the ego, many Chinese have been able to avoid making the clamour for fame their primary goal. When people have made the pursuit of excellence their goal they have often benefited in turn by earning such accolades as awards, success, and wealth, all of which an endless parade of Chinese, both in the mainland, and in the diaspora, have earned in spades. In effect, the Chinese did not allow the different religious strands to tear their societies apart. Rather, they sought the best in each of these religions, whether they are the hard work expounded by Confucianism, the yearning for a peaceful mind promulgated by Buddhism, or the self-effacement of Daoism. Altogether, they spell success. Bibliography Chaibong, Hahm. “The ironies of Confucianism.” Vol. 15 Issue 3, Journal of Democracy, (Jul 2004):93. “Harvard professor discusses Confucianism in contemporary world.” China Daily, (Dec 7, 2005):13. Kam-shing Yip. “Taoistic concepts of Mental Health: Implications for Social Work Practice with Chinese Communities.” Families in Society, Vol. 86 Issue 1 (Jan-Mar 2005):35. Leung, Ambrose & Wong, Martin. “Hopes for Confucius holiday – Catholic and Protestant leaders back the move, saying the religion needs more public recognition.” South China Morning Post, (Oct 24, 2006):3. Liu, Xun. “In search of immortality: Daoist inner alchemy in early twentieth-century.” University of Southern California (2001):AAT. Slingerland, Edward. Review of Material Virtue: Ethics and the Body in Early China. By Mark Csikszentmihalyi. Leiden: Brill, 2005. True, Michael. “Eastern religions offer insight in the search for life’s meaning.” Telegram & Gazette, (Nov 8, 2006):A15. Wang Zhuoping. “Confucian studies return, hailed as relevant.” China Daily, (Oct 6, 2006):3. Read More