Evolution of the American Presidency - Essay Example

Evolution of the American Presidency Introduction More than any other branch of the United s government, the presidency is noted to have undergone a remarkable transformation over the period spanning the last 200 years (Major, i)1. This transformation has greatly affected the limited role of the presidency that had been envisioned by the framers of the constitution. The modern day presidency is not exactly what it originally was when George Washington took office. It has gradually undergone continual change and has been able to develop several facets in these modern times. This paper will seek to examine the evolution of the country’s presidency and the executive and show just how it has evolved beyond the founding fathers expectations. The Creation of the American Presidency The framers of the constitution had been weary of executive power as they perceived it as potentially being the most likely source of tyranny in the newly formed country. Britain’s King George III was widely deemed by many to be the villain of the American Revolutionary war and in this capacity; he was widely perceived to be a prime example of executive power run amok (Slap, 211)2. As they wrote the constitution, the framers were keen to not provide the presidency with many powers. They wanted to develop a strong executive that would be able to effectively deal with any emergencies and especially those that involved other nations, but which would not in the process dominate the U.S. government. Expecting the Congress to be the focal point of the national government, the framers structured the constitution accordingly and made the presidency powerful enough to effectively balance and check Congress but not so powerful as it to be able to overrun Congress (Genovese, 201)3. In Article II of constitution, the framers defined the benefits, qualifications and powers of the presidency. According to this article, the president must be an individual aged at least 35 years and must have resided in the United States for not less than a total of 14 years. Presidents must also be natural born citizens of the country. In writing the constitution, the framers assigned the following powers to the country’s President (Wilson, 51)4. Diplomatic Power: The constitution gives the president the power to enter into and make treaties with various foreign nations but not without first seeking the advice and consent of the senate. For a treaty to be valid, two-thirds of the senate must agree to the treaty that the president signs. The constitution also provides that the president shall be responsible for receiving ambassadors and other public ministers that performing the related ceremonial duties (Wilson, 51)5. Military Power: Although the founders saw the importance of creating a strong military that would be able to successfully protect both the country and its citizen, they however named the president, who is essentially a civilian, as the commander in chief of the country’s armed services. This was intentionally done because the founders who were mindful of balancing and checking power did not want a situation whereby a military general would be able to seize the government (Wilson, 51)6. Legislative Power: The United States President is constitutionally given the power to veto legislation. Every bill that successfully passes both the two houses of Congress must be submitted to the President. However it is quite possible for Congress to be able to get around the President in a number of ways. If for some reason the President fails to sign a bill into law within a time-span of ten days, the bill automatically becomes law. Congress can also override a presidential veto by conducting a vote of two-thirds in each house (Wilson, 53)7. Although the constitution framers did not provide the presidency with many powers and George Washington actively worked to keep it that way, the existing balance of power between Congress and the presidency gradually began to shift over the decades. The personalities of the first three presidents are noted to have shaped it into a more influential position by the early 1800s. However, from the 1800s to the 1930s, Congress was able to shape itself as the national government’s dominant branch (Gerston, 66)8. However a change is noted to have taken place after this period as over the past seventy years, this balance of power has undergone a dramatic shift such that the executive branch is now noted to have at least equal power to the legislative branch. The Influence of Presidents on the Powers of the Presidency George Washington George Washington, president from 1775 through to 1783, was instrumental in establishing the character of the office that nearly all of his eventual successors would strive to emulate. President Washington was noted to carry himself in the manner of a statesman; he also set the standard of presidents not serving no more than two terms. Washington also created the indelible image that a president should essentially be honorable, capable, above partisanship and strong (Callahan, 9)9. On the other hand, President Jefferson, who held office from 1801 though to 1809, acted contrary to the image that had been cultivated by Washington when he made the 1803 Louisiana Purchase (Goldberg, 31)10. As opposed to being an era of great presidents, the nineteenth century is deemed to have been an era of great legislators (Ragone, 82)11. The initial wave of the nation’s founding presidents including Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Madison is noted to have quickly given way to a collection of rather forgettable and weak office holders. These individuals caused the presidency to be perceived as a source of federal patronage jobs and a platform through which the individual in charge could be able to fight the Indians. Of note is that during this era, the president usually spent most of his time interviewing and appointing thousands of federal workers which included census officials, mail carriers as well as patent reviewers (Davidson, 17)12. Important issues of the day such as states’ rights and slavery were largely left to congress for debate. This resulted in the development of a situation whereby great legislators such as John Calhoun, Stephen Douglas, Henry Clay and Daniel Webster could be able to enjoy greater popularity and more celebrity status than the president (Ragone, 82)13. However, there were two presidents who were able to stand out during this era, Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Jackson. Andrew Jackson It was President Andrew Jackson who first proposed that the presidency should be structured in such a manner that is would be the dominant force in the American government (Ragone, 82)14. President Jackson asserted the right of the presidency to freely replace any federal officeholder without first having to consult with Congress. Jackson was not shy about appointing most of his cronies to key government positions and in the process created a patronage system. According to Krannawitter (209)15, Jackson also stood up to members of the Congress and actively opposed tariffs while threatening to use the military in enforcing federal law across the country (Farmer, 161)16. Jackson was also the first president to make direct appeals to the average voter in an effort to try and buildup support. Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln is regarded as being the nation’s greatest president. His election led to the secession of the Confederate States from the Union. When the newly elected president Lincoln found himself faced with the greatest crisis that the country had ever encountered, He was quick to understand that only the presidency could be able to successfully keep the entire country together. In doing this Lincoln cited the implied emergency powers of the Constitution and freed the slaves. He also imposed martial law despite his lacking the explicit authority to do so (Neely, 62)17. One of Lincoln’s most important actions is his decision to hold the 1864 election while the Civil war was still raging although he probably could have suspended this election if he had wished to. President Lincoln was forced to take substantial control over the federal government so as to be in a position to conduct the Civil War in an effective manner. Lincoln also suspended the writ of habeas corpus and other civil liberties. He also spent money without first seeking congressional approval to do so. At the start of the twentieth century, the country’s president gradually began to emerge as being a key political actor in the federal government. As the federal government grew both in influence and size, so did the presidency. Since the start of the twentieth century, the president has been the dominant force in both American politics and government. This seeming irreversible trend is noted to have been primarily pioneered by some of the most prominent presidents of the twentieth century. Theodore Roosevelt President Theodore Roosevelt was the first to establish the notion of the bully pulpit (Lansford, 72)18. In using this notion, Theodore Roosevelt utilized both the reach and the prestige of the White House in rallying the American people to certain legislation and ideas. He worked closely with Congress which sent it messages that defined his legislative powers. Roosevelt is noted to have taken a lead activist approach when dealing with both the international and domestic matters. It is as a direct result of his approach that the federal government started to become directly involved in many aspects of the citizen’s lives. He believed that the country should simultaneously pursue a populist domestic policy and an expansionist foreign policy. During his presidency, Theodore Roosevelt was able to successfully prove that the White House could be utilized as a platform for extraordinary change. Woodrow Wilson President Woodrow Wilson actively helped in the formulation of bills that Congress considered and World War I is seen to have offered him the opportunity of taking a leading role in vario8us international affairs. Franklin Roosevelt It was President Franklin Roosevelt, president between 1933 and 1945, who permanently changed the actual nature of the American presidency. Roosevelt was elected during the period of the Great Depression and was quick to expand both the scope and size of the federal government. Some of Roosevelt’s New Deal policies that greatly popularized the role of the presidency and the federal government included the Tennessee Valley Authority, the creation of social security, the Works Progress Administration as well as a number of other programs that had been designed with the aim of giving jobs to the unemployed. Franklin Roosevelt was elected a total of four times to the presidency and was instrumental in leading the country through both the crises of World War II and the Great Depression. During the Second World War, it was believed by many people that because the president was the best person to successfully lead the war effort, power should in essence be concentrated in his hand. During the war, President Franklin Roosevelt is seen to have extended the presidency’s power when he curtailed civil liberties, nationalized a number of industries to aid in the war effort and also decided exactly how the war was to be waged. Roosevelt is noted to have gained great power through the use of his New Deal programs that helped to regulate the economy. The war also necessitated that he lead the country in foreign affairs (Daynes et al, 14)19. Of note is that Franklin Roosevelt revolutionized the manner in which presidents usually communicated with the general public. He began the practice of frequently using the radio to deliver a series of addresses to the American public and this practice still continues to this day. In his addresses to the public, President Roosevelt used a friendly manner of speaking that came be named fireside chats because he spoke as if the listening American public were his friends and had gathered around a fireplace to hear him speak. Shortly after the end of WWII, the next president Harry S. Truman, president 1945-1953, continued with President Franklin Roosevelt’s policies. During the nineteenth century, presidents had had to frequently contend with widespread congressional influence in foreign affairs and this particularly applied to contending with the influence of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. However, by the early 1960s, the president had become the undisputed architect of U.S. foreign policy. The Influence of the Cold War on the Powers of the Presidency The Cold War that raged between the Soviet Union and the United States is thought to have contributed more towards the enhancement of powers associated with the Presidency than any other single event during the entire twentieth century. The war caused America’s role in the world to primarily become the preoccupation of its president and this factor is noted to have consequently spurred an unprecedented growth in the presidential powers and the executive branch. Although congress largely remained instrumental in domestic affairs, it nevertheless acquiesced to the president in respect to matters pertaining to the war powers and foreign policy. In the 1950s, Trueman’s response to the threat that was being posed by the Soviet included the decision to fight Korea without first seeking a congressional declaration of war. Neither Woodrow Wilson nor Franklin Roosevelt could have possibly imagined taking the country to war without first obtaining a congressional declaration. However, the exigencies of the Cold War are seen to have heightened the country’s overall reliance on the president to defiant its interests. It was due to these factors that Truman was able to enter the Korean conflict without having to seek for Congressional approval, he simply described the deployment of U.S. troops as being police action that had been taking in conjunction with the united Nations (Barnhart, 41)20. Since the 1930’s America’s presidents have been able to assume extraordinary powers in matters pertaining to both foreign and domestic policy. During the 1960s and the 1970s, there were a number of concerns raised by individuals who actively decried what they termed as the imperial presidency. These individuals felt democratically threatened by the giving of too much power to a single individual. Imperial presidency is thought to have peaked with Richard Nixon, president 1969-1974. Congress was of the belief that President Nixon was abusing a long-standing presidential power that allowed the president to impound the funds that had been appropriated for use in the formulation of programs and laws (Pfiffner, 158)21. Presidents had previously been allowed to hold funds for administrative reasons such as the correction of accounting errors. President Nixon actively used the impound power to block funds for bills he had previously vetoed but Congress had duly overridden. No funding meant no legislation. In response to Nixon’s actions, Congress rallied by passing the 1974 Budget and Impound Control Act which revoked the presidential power to impound appropriations. However in the aftermath of Nixon’s Watergate scandal, Congress used the opportunity to take a more assertive role in government which caused the powers of the presidency to quickly recede. In particular, Congress initiated an active oversized campaign which sought to investigate the president’s actions while demanding for more information from the government’s executive branch (Pfiffner, 158)22. The decision taken by presidents from Gerald Ford to Barrack Obama indicate that the initiative in war-making and foreign policy firms remains in the hands of the presidency. In 1975, Ford Signaled that the War Powers Act, essentially placed no meaningful restrictions on a president’s powers. Without first consulting congress, Ford sent U.S. commandos to liberate a number of American seamen that had been seized by the Khmer Rouge. In 1980, his successor Jimmy Carter sent a secret mission into free American hostages that had been held at the Tehran U.S Embassy (Dallek, 2011)23. When the cold war eventually came to an end and the Soviet Union was dissolved during the early 1990s, Congress began to actively reassert itself in a bid to take up a more powerful position. This was particularly noted during the 1994 midterm elections. However, the events of September 11, and the resulting war on terrorism have caused the president to have a renewed mandate on both international issues and domestic security. Conclusion Undoubtedly, the presidential power has been able to grow over the years as the function and role of the presidency continues to be expanded. The early American presidents had relatively very little executive power and influence and heavily relied on Congress for most functions. However, a number of presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, Woodrow Wilson and Andrew Jackson have greatly changed the powers and influence of the presidency. It should be noted that the current setup has seen to it that Congress maintains a great share of control in matters pertaining to domestic issues while the presidency is afforded greater power and control in matters relating to foreign issues. Since September 11, the war on Terror has caused the presidency to acquire more power. The powers of the modern presidency have been shaped by a combination of constitutional and evolutionary powers and it is the forceful personalities and visions of strong presidents that have caused the presidency to evolve beyond the founding father’s expectations. Works Cited Barnhart, Michael A. 1987. Congress and United States foreign policy: controlling the use of force in the nuclear age. Albany: State University of New York Press. Callahan, North. 1991. Thanks, Mr. President: the trail-blazing second term of George Washington. New York: Cornwall Books. Dallek, Robert. 2011. Power and the Presidency, From Kennedy to Obama. Accessed at Davidson, Roger H. 2003. Workways of governance monitoring our governments health. Washington, D.C.: Governance Institute. Daynes, Byron W., William D. Pederson, and Thomas Phillip Wolf. 2001. Franklin D. 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