Domestic Violence. Effects of Domestic Violence on Women - Essay Example

?Running Head: DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Domestic Violence Domestic Violence Introduction Domestic Violence affects millions of people, yet only over the past several decades has this fact been acknowledged (Mears & Visher, 2005). Findings from a review of survey research of intimate partner violence by Field and Caetano (2005) revealed that, based on the past 25 years of survey research in the U.S. general population, domestic violence continues to be a major public health problem. Stover-Smith (2005) reported that recent data from the U.S. Bureau of Statistics showed that 691,710 nonfatal and 1,247 fatal violent victimizations were committed by intimate partners in the United States in 2001. Domestic violence is a serious violation of human rights that research suggests is primarily a crime against women (Satyanarayana, & Chandra, 2009). Krantz and Garcia-Moreno (2005) noted that domestic violence is the most frequent form of violence against women in all societies, including rich as well as poor women. Women are violently victimized physically, sexually, psychologically or any combination of these. They suffer loss of power and control and entrapment as a result of their partner's abuse (Coker, Smith, & McKeown, 2000). Stover-Smith's (2005) research of literature revealed that, out of nearly 16,000 articles published in the past 10 years regarding Domestic Violence, there was an overwhelming preval­ence of violence and unfortunate effects of its exposure on children. These findings revealed the importance of the impact of domestic violence and suggested the need for more focused efforts to pinpoint interventions that are effective. Definition of Domestic Violence Domestic violence has emerged as one of the world's most pressing problems. Domestic violence is illegal in all 50 states, and although the actual prevalence of domestic violence is unknown, the estimates of intimate partner violence range from 1 million to nearly 16 percent of married couples every year in the United States. It is possible that millions of other incidents are unreported. Domestic violence is defined as physical or emotional acts between intimate partners that cause harm and a pattern of behavior used to establish or maintain control over an intimate or domestic partner (Emery, 2006). In California, domestic violence is defined under Penal Code 13700 as "intentionally or recklessly causing or attempting to cause bodily injury, or placing another person in reasonable apprehension of imminent serious bodily injury to himself or herself or another that is committed against an adult or fully emancipated minor" who has a current or previous intimate relationship with the perpetrator (The State of California, 2011: p.1). Other states offer a similar definition of domestic violence (Basile, 2005). Effects of Domestic Violence on Women An important consequence of domestic abuse is increased reporting of psychological symptoms, particularly depression, and low self-esteem in the victims. A case study by Paul (2004) stated that domestic violence victims associated with feelings of helplessness, powerlessness, hopelessness, and the enormous drive that is necessary to change. Aguilar and Nightingale (1994) examined the self-esteem of 48 women via a questionnaire measure, assessing their self-esteem and battering experience in compari­son to a group of 48 non-battered women. Their findings suggested that abuse that is controlling might add to the complexity that some battered women face in ending their abusive relationships and may be significant in the feelings of powerlessness and hope­lessness as identified in battered women. Further, Orava, McLeod, and Sharpe (1996) looked at the relationship between the experience of violence and existing psychologi­cal health among 21 abused women and 18 controls. It was concluded that the abused women had lower beliefs in self-efficacy, were more depressed, and had lower self­-esteem than the controls. Hopelessness Theory Research by Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy (1989) subsequently proposed a hopelessness theory of depression for domestic violence victims. According to this theory, hopeless­ness is a proximal cause of symptoms of depression. Learned helplessness theory has also been connected to partner abuse. According to Walker (2000), a pattern of con­tinued abuse directs battered women's belief that they are incapable of changing their circumstances. Thus, battered women who are abused repeatedly, without warning and uncontrollably, learn to become powerless and believe that they have no control over their life. It should be noted that there were insufficiencies in the method used, which left the results questionable. Never the less, it is generally agreed that domestic violence victims are ambivalent and afraid to make formidable life changes. Review of domestic violence research revealed many factors that predict the likelihood of a woman choosing to remain in or leave an abusive relationship, with no single theory assertively predicting a woman's choice. A summary of research by N. R. Rhodes and McKenzie (1998) stated that research in domestic violence is challenged by the fact that humans are naturally multifaceted beings who are involved in multiple behaviors for numerous reasons. Various components, such as issues of self-esteem; psychopathology; socio­ demographic, sociocultural, and socioeconomic influence, as well as, ambivalence lead women to accept mistreatment and remain in abusive relationships. Many researchers have explored the process of change that women experience when resolving abusive relationships. Although seeking to end violence and distress in their relationship may or may not be the goal, it becomes more complex when the social context of children, families of origin, and friendship networks are included. The victim has a need to balance care for others and for herself, which influences her decisions about abuse (Dienemann, Campbell, Landenburger, & Curry, 2002; Rhodes, & McKenzie, 1998). In Dienemann's review of qualitative research on the meanings that women connect to their difficulty for change to safe lives it was dis­covered that changes in a woman's behavior are propelled or inhibited by what the woman believes about her experiences. Women have conflict in understanding and deciding about the violence with which they are faced and between the messages they receive from the perpetrate, family, and community. Thus, the decision to change includes the meaning that the woman applies to levels of self, the relationship, family, and is difficult Overall, making decisions in an abusive relationship is not easy for victims of DV. However, a study by Fry and Baker (2001) indicated that survivors of abuse regret not being able to cope and not taking action. Their regrets included those of self­ protection, self-development, and not making changes. These changes may or may not include leaving their abuser. It is common for women to enter and exit violent relation­ships on a continuum, which is part of the changing behavior. Effects on Children Domestic violence affects not only women, but also their children. Nearly 3 million children are exposed to domestic violence in their homes each year. There is extensive literature reporting that exposure to domestic violence has a harmful effect on the development of children, emotionally and behaviorally (Stover-Smith, 2005). Children who are exposed to domestic violence exhibit more anxiety, depression, and traumatic symptoms than children who are not exposed (Schecter & Edelson, 2000). Younger children appear more susceptible to the effects of family violence than older children. Children from violent households have higher risks for juvenile delinquency and alcohol/drug abuse. Stover­ Smith's review of multiple correlational data confirmed that exposure to violence in childhood is associated with coexisting and potential child behavioral and psychiatric problems. Children's cognitive functioning, initiative, personality style, self-esteem, and impulse control are among other problems that affect children who are faced with exposure to domestic violence (Stover-Smith, 2005). At any age, the intensity of witnessing violence between parents is terrifying and emotionally deregulating (Stover-Smith, 2005). However, when children are exposed at a younger age (e.g., preschool) when the development of emotional self-regulation is taking place, such experience can be particularly damaging and can result in problems in maintaining peer relationships, establishing close friendships, and managing conflict (Stover-­Smith, 2005). Children who have been exposed to domestic violence are also at an increased risk for victimization by child abuse, neglect, and physical injury (Mitchell and Finkelhor, 2001). Mitchell and Finkelhor (2001) reported that exposed youth were 158% more likely to experience being a victim of violence than children in nonviolent homes. There is evidence that violence in the family leads not only to externalizing but also to internalizing behavior problems, both of which can result in interpersonal difficulties with peers. Cummings, Pepler, and Moore (1999) compared children from violent families with high rates of parent-child aggression with children from currently non-violent families. Girls from violent families had a high rate of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems, while boys of violent families obtained significantly higher internalizing ratings than boys of two-parent, nonviolent families (Cummings, Pepler, & Moore, 1999). In examining the effects of child abuse, Murphy, Meyer, and O'Leary (1993) compared groups of violent and nonviolent married men with a group of controls on measures of personality disorder as rated by the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory- II. A severe history of child abuse was positively correlated with current psychopathology and elevations on Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory- II, scales of alcohol dependence, drug dependence, anxiety, paranoia, and dysthymia (Murphy et aI., 1993). Cultural Differences Within the context of domestic violence, cultural factors are also significant and shape a woman's experience of violence and abuse. Although intimate partner violence is present among all ethnic groups in the United States, some groups have higher rates than others (Field & Caetano, 2005). Some data have suggested that domestic partner abuse may be more commonly perpetrated by Hispanic and African American men than by Caucasian men. In a comparison study by Frias and Angel (2005) of what domestic violence means to various groups and the risk of partner violence it was reported that Mexican-origin women reported similarities in their vulnerability and victimization to those of African American women. Of a total of 2,296 participants, higher rates were seen in Hispanics (1,088) and African Americans (965), higher than the rate for non-Hispanic White women (243). However, Bomstein (2006) stated that most studies contrasting domestic violence rates in ethnic and racial groups have not produced conclusive results. The individual beliefs, values, and experiences of those within ethnic groups make decisions in dealing with abuse more challenging. In a study by El-Khoury et al. (2004) it was reported that, out ofa sample of376 African American and Caucasian domestic violence victims, African American women (90.7%) were more likely than Caucasian women (76.5%) to endorse using prayer. Also, Caucasian battered women (48.1 %) were more likely than African American women (26.0%) to endorse using mental health coun­selors for coping strategies when seeking services. El-Khoury et al. indicated the lack of trust that African Americans have for mental health professionals in seeking services. Galanti (2003), in a discussion about Hispanic family values, reported that, among Hispanic families, family is one of the most important values and that women are expected to help sustain their family's name and may not want to talk about DV. Yoshioka and Choi (2005) stated that, based on how a woman perceives herself as a family and community member within her distinct culture fluctuates in how she actually identifies and deals with intimate partner violence. The problem is even more complex among immigrant women. Sharma (2001) stated that many fears and concerns of women from diverse cultures tend to be more extensive in that they are faced with isolation and powerlessness when trying to adapt to another country in addition to the oppression suffered from the abuser. Immigrant women have strong connections to their racial and ethnic heritages, and there is conflict when therapist and crisis workers concentrate on what they think a woman is in need of and persuade the woman to leave the abuser, which exacerbates the problem. Also, an immigrant woman may lack transportation, social support, and financial resources to leave her abuser. Current Counseling Interventions Domestic violence is a complex issue that necessitates multiple means of intervention strategies to assist its victims. Some of the current intervention and treatment modalities are individual counseling, hotlines, psycho-educational group counseling, legal advocacy, and shelter programs. However, there are very few empirical studies examining the efficacy of counseling, counseling outcomes, or what types of counseling are beneficial for domestic violence survivors (Bennett et al., 2004). Rhodes and Levinson (2003) reported that review of interventions for violence against women revealed that shelter stays and advocacy counseling have been shown to be reasonable, inadequate, or imprecise evidence for effectiveness. The primary approach in helping domestic violence victims is feminist therapy, which was developed from the 1970s grassroots efforts of the domestic violence movement, and several researchers have pointed out that it is a helpful approach in counseling battered women in that it empowers them by examining societal cause of domination (Sharma, 2001). However, Sharma noted that services are favored and designed to sustain a battered woman who decides to leave the partner instead ofthe woman who chooses to stay, which can become problematic. Sharma (2001) also reported that the feminist approach does not effectively recognize the diversity among immigrant and racially visible women who have been abused. She further maintained that it does not address the differences in their needs from women of the dominant culture, which further addresses the necessity for different approaches, styles of practice, and assessment. Hunter (2001) raised the point that, in traditional feminist therapy, the therapist takes a position of control and authority over the woman to stop the violence, to protect her from continuing to be abused, and to inform her about her safety. The role of the therapist in the need to empower the woman might contrast with the necessity to value her free will to choose. Research has suggested that shelters are significant in their services for battered women. They provide protection for women and their children, which gives them the opportunity to reflect on their choices as well as embark on reestablishing their lives with social, legal, and medical assistance, if needed (Bennett et al., 2004). McNamara et al. examined diverse short-term outcomes of receiving counseling or case management services at a domestic violence shelter serving 81 women (ages 18-63). The counseling and case management services were assessed; after three sessions it was reported that abuse decreased, life satisfaction increased, perceived coping ability improved, and satisfaction with the services increased. Overall, the organization, content, and effects of counseling services differ from agency to agency. Conclusion Review of literature indicates that victims of domestic violence suffer physically, emotionally, and psychologically from the abuse perpetrated by the partners. Studies have shows that the impact is primarily imposed upon women. The occurrence crosses all cultures ad affect women as well as their children in large numbers. Based on research, these victims tend to have lower self-esteem, feeling of hopelessness, and ambivalence about making changes in their lives, not knowing whether they should leave or stay, and not having the ability to leave or stay in the relationship with the abuser. Cultural factors have been found to be significant when women are deciding to leave or stay in their abusive relationships. Victims of abuse are torn between what they believe, as well as their family and community values, and what is safe for them. Current counseling interventions, such as individual-feminist therapy, shelter programs, and legal advo­cacy, support women in their stay/leave decisions. However, there is limited research on the efficacy of such interventions. References Abramson, L., Metalsky, G., & Alloy, L. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory ­based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358-372. Aguilar, R., & Nightingale, N. (1994). 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