Environmental Reporting: Motivation - Essay Example

?Motivation: A Literature Review The term motivation is derived from the Latin verb “movere” which is translated as to move and may be generally defined as “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained” (Pintrich and Schunk, as cited in Lins 2005: 3). In a similar sense, Rainey (2009) defines motivation as forces which move, arouse or direct people to perform a specific action. The following literature review looks some theories of motivation and their applications in various sectors. Maslow’s theory vs. Herzberg’s theory of motivation The most influential theory on human motivation is Maslow’s theory of human needs and wants which he posited in 1953. The hierarchy of needs proposed by Maslow found applications towards motivation in the areas of work, duty and group or communal benefits (Rainey 2009). Motivation, according to Maslow, is triggered by man’s unsatisfied needs. The theory was presented in a hierarchy from the simplest or most primitive to the most complex or most mature, in terms of the behaviour promoted in each level of need (Montana and Charnov, 2008). The most primitive needs such as the need to satisfy hunger, thirst, fatigue and defense from the elements (or the need for shelter) are termed as physiological needs. The next level involves freedom from threat of harm, and is classified in the hierarchy as safety needs. Human need for love, affection, and belongingness in groups or social units constitute the next higher level of needs and are categorised as social needs. The next higher level of need deals with the needs for a sense of achievement, as well as confidence, recognition and prestige, and is collectively called self esteem needs. The highest level of need is aptly called self actualisation needs. The ultimate level of human needs is for one to become everything that he / she is capable of becoming, which is usually achieved through self-fulfillment in one or more areas or goals (Rainey 2009; Montana and Charnov, 2008). Another very popular theory of motivation proposed during the 1950s was Herzberg’s motivation – hygiene theory. The theory negated the common notion that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are in the opposite sides of a scale. Herzberg maintained that satisfaction is one dimension and dissatisfaction is another dimension. Achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth are generally called in Herzberg’s theory as motivation factors since these factors have been established to increase human motivation. On the other hand, the factors which are known to result in dissatisfaction, such as company policy and administration, supervision, salary, working conditions, status, interpersonal relationships, relation with subordinates, relation with supervisors, relation with peers, security, personal life, etc. (Pride, Hughes, and Kapoor, 2012; Rainey, 2009). Applications of theories on motivation One of the early and the most common application of Maslow’s theory of motivation is in the industry. The study conducted by Barling (1977) dovetailed from early researches in this theory which ended inconclusively. Earlier research on Maslow’s theory were classified in terms of applicability of the theory within the industry and utility of the theory for industry. As Barling (1977) demonstrated, results of such studies, however, failed to establish either applicability or utility of Maslow’s theory to industry. Barling (1977) also revealed that Maslow’s theory is a general theory of motivation, but not a work theory of motivation. The study also showed no significant association between the need for self actualisation and peoples’ aspiration for promotion at work among sample of White South African mineworkers. The implication of this finding is that if self-actualisation is indeed, related to work motivation, then self-actualisation may be gauged through improved productivity at work. Should further research illustrate no significant relationship between the need for self actualisation and aspiration for promotion, the usefulness of Maslow’s theory for industrial and organisational applications will be relegated to a bare minimum. Chiang, Jang, Canter, and Prince (2008) evaluated the mediating effect of communication satisfaction in strengthening the influence of expectancy, instrumentality and valence in the context of a hospitality organisation, (i.e., a hotel). The study revealed that groups characterised by low and high communication satisfaction responded differently to expectancy, instrumentality valence and work motivation. Respondents who reported high satisfaction with communication tend to react more positively on components of motivation and are more likely perform better at work when properly motivated. Confirmatory analysis, however demonstrated that the mediating effect between those who have high and low satisfaction are not significantly different. The findings suggest that corporate communications should be managed in such a way as to motivate employees collectively. Implications point towards the need for further research to examine the process of decision making which will ensure that all employees will be motivated positively towards better performance. The study of Halepota (2005) postulated that since motivation is a crucial factor in boosting productivity, interventions aimed at generating a higher level of motivation would yield a corresponding improvement in productivity. The author reviewed several motivational theories in relation to its application with the aim of increasing labour productivity. The motivational theories included in the study are: (1) Cussin’s approach or management by threat; (2) Maslow’s theory / hierarchy of needs; (3) McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y; (4) Expectancy theory; and (5) Herzberg’s theory. The main objective of the study is to determine if the use of motivational theories, either intentional or unintentional, would result to an increase in productivity levels. The review also verified the effects of better management practices and the role of construction managers and management in boosting productivity levels in the workplace. Five motivation theories were selected for the review. Each theory was examined in terms of key factor which affect productivity levels. In addition, examples of real-world applications were cited to demonstrate the advantage gained by utilising motivational theories (Halepota 2005). After analysing the merits of each theory, the following findings have been gathered: (1) Cussin’s approach is considered obsolete; (2) higher levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs show more potential in increasing worker productivity; however, lower levels are not as effective; (3) McGregor’s Theory Y has significant potential in boosting productivity levels, which is in contrast with Theory X; (4) the use of the expectancy theory would work best on an individual basis, particularly for supervisors; and (5) Herzberg’s theory may be utilized to determine factors which improve and degrade levels of motivation (Halepota 2005). Moreover, analysis revealed that managers should assume a more active role in developing interventions that aim to boost worker motivation and productivity. Managers who wish to improve worker motivation should oversee each step in the process which includes planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling. Results of the evaluation revealed different aspects of human behaviour which affect an individual’s motivation and productivity. Managers should consider these aspects together with existing conditions in an organization to determine which theory would best fit the management style of the organization (Halepota 2005). Usagami and Park (2006) investigated the link between motivation management and corporate performance by comparing motivation perceptions of Korean and Japanese executives in Japanese-affiliated companies located in Korea. The research instrument is composed of two parts: an interview survey and questionnaire. Interview surveys were conducted on five respondents from 2 textile, 2 electronics, and one precision machinery company. Four of the respondents hold executive or managerial positions while one respondent is a company president. Respondent perception of employee motivational factors were analyzed and compared with Herzberg’s motivational and hygiene factors. On the other hand, the survey questionnaire presents 12 employee motivation factors identified during the initial interviews. Survey forms were sent to 475 Japanese-affiliated companies in Korea. A total of 69 out of 475 respondents returned the questionnaire (Usagami & Park 2006). The results revealed that both Japanese and Korean executives highly value employee motivation in terms of improving corporate performance, employee job satisfaction, and customer satisfaction. However, Japanese executives show more awareness of the concept compared to their Korean counterparts. In addition, majority of both Japanese and Korean respondents consider “wage and bonus increases” as an effective motivator. Korean respondents have “employee satisfaction” on top of their list while Japanese respondents perceive “clarifying company policy and job objectives” as the most important motivation factor (Usagami & Park 2006). Fu, Richards, and Jones (2009) evaluated the results of goal setting on salesperson motivation and sales using the motivation hub theoretical framework. Three antecedents, namely: company-assigned goals, self-set goals, and self efficacy were used in the study wherein longitudinal data gathered from 143 industrial salespeople were analysed and compared with company data. Results of the analysis show that a motivation threshold exists for salespeople. Salespeople are motivated to meet goals at a certain extent, after which the amount of effort diminishes as goal levels continue to go up.  In addition, company-assigned goals, self-set goals, and selling effort are identified to have beneficial effects in the sales of upcoming products (Fu, Richards & Jones 2009). Furthermore, sales managers, marketing managers, and other stakeholders should realize that due to the dynamic nature of the motivation hub model, salespersons have the tendency to reduce their sales efforts when they encounter failure and inability to meet assigned goals. Therefore, the provision of continual support, assistance and feedback from managers should be maintained in order to help salespersons reach their targets (Fu, Richards & Jones 2009). Ambrose and Kulik (1999) evaluated literature spanning eight years from January 1990 to December 1997. An excess of 200 studies related to seven traditional motivational theories (Motives and Needs; Expectancy Theory; Equity Theory; Goal-Setting; Cognitive Evaluation Theory; Work Design; and Reinforcement Theory) and three new topic areas (Creativity, Groups, and Culture) were examined. Each study was analyzed and research trends and issues were determined. Findings were categorized by area and recommendations for future research are presented. Results of the review revealed that most traditional motivational theories have already garnered empirical support and research direction was towards the refinement of models and creation of moderators and boundary conditions. However, the primary principles of goal-setting, equity theory, and expectancy theory remained untouched. Despite several new motivational theories being suggested, these have not received any empirical validation. In addition, research has moved away from the general theme of motivation and focused on specific aspects of employee behaviour. (Ambrose & Kulik 1999). Sledge, Miles, and Coppage (2008) examined the role of culture in influencing employee motivation and job satisfaction among hotel workers in Brazil. Culture has turned into a popular subject in relation to its role in business. There are five common dimensions to culture that may provide insights on employee behaviour and standards namely: (1) unequal distribution of control and influence in society; (2) individualism versus collectivism; (3) degree of risk aversion; (4) masculinity versus femininity; and (5) long-term versus short-term orientation. A total of five hotels located in Salvador, Brazil were included in the study. Employee observation and personal interviews were utilized as the main survey tools. Data collected were analyzed and key factors were identified using motivation and satisfaction theory frameworks, mainly in relation to motivators and hygiene factors. Results of the study show respondents giving a 7.6 out of 10 rating for job satisfaction while pride in work was rated 1.85 out of 4. On the other hand, top hygiene factors include salary, security, policy and administration. It was also observed on the interviews that most respondents show a certain degree of discomfort when asked questions about job dissatisfaction. This is due to the apparent cultural custom of avoiding any display of job dissatisfaction at work (Sledge, Miles & Coppage 2008). Udechukwu (2009) examined the reasons behind voluntary turnover among correctional officers in one southern US correctional facility in relation to Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy and Herzberg’s Motivation Theory. Employee turnover diminishes overall productivity, not to mention the costs involved in maintaining a stable workforce. Voluntary turnover is described as a result of an employee-initiated severance of relationship with his or her employer. So far, the most common variable used in gauging voluntary turnover rates is job satisfaction. However, in order to better understand the phenomenon, concepts from Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy and Herzberg’s Motivation Theory may be used to measure how internal and external factors influence employee decisions to leave (Udechukwu, 2009). Based on the evaluation, it has been revealed that a correctional officer experiencing diminished job satisfaction does not necessarily mean that the officer is dissatisfied. Moreover, an officer’s met or unmet needs play a part in influencing employee behaviour. In summary, Herzberg’s horizontal treatment of determining the type of job satisfaction may be used in combination with Maslow’s vertical approach on identifying the level of job satisfaction. Furthermore, it is suggested that a clear and comprehensive career path and promotional opportunities should be developed to help reduce the voluntary turnover rate (Udechukwu 2009). Locke (2004) described goal-setting theory as the most utilized management theory. Its use in business is universal and works best when individuals have a control over how well they perform. Moreover, goal setting works across different industries, both in real-world and simulated settings. Ahmed, Nawaz, Iqbal, Ali, Shaukat & Usman (2010) evaluated the effects of motivation factors on job satisfaction among University of the Punjab employees. A total of 400 respondents were selected using stratified random sampling technique with a 78 percent response rate. Motivational factors are analysed based on Herzberg’s theory on motivators and hygiene factors. Based on the results, the authors concluded that a significant relationship exists between hygiene factors and overall job satisfaction which included: (1) recognition; (2) the work itself; (3) promotion opportunities; (4) professional growth; (5) responsibility; (6) good feeling about the organisation; and (7) job satisfaction. Moreover, it was found out that females are more satisfied with their job than their male counterparts. Also, employees with higher educational attainment are more motivated in performing their work. Conclusion Grounded on the analysis of the studies included in this literature review, it may be concluded that the theory of motivation has some applications to business. However, employees from various business sectors differ in terms of factors which catalyse their motivation to perform better at work. In the hospitality sector, culture and satisfaction with communication is an essential predictor of motivation, whereas in the construction industry, management is a crucial influence in productivity. Meanwhile, in the manufacturing sector, particularly in the textile, electronics, and precision machinery companies, rewards and employee satisfaction are the primary motivators. In sales, feedback from managers and task support indirectly influence motivation of salespersons. Researchers consider motivation as an important factor in employees’ turnover in correctional institutions. It is unfortunate that many researchers have limited their scope to the most popular theories such as Maslow’s and Herzberg, to the point that other motivational theories have not been fully validated. For example, attention is focused on employee behaviour as predictors of work performance, rather than motivation. Motivation is a complex subject and more than half a century of research should not have dampened the spirits of business researchers to study motivation as an important area of interest. Future research should be directed towards the validity of other models of motivation in business and productivity. References Ahmed, I, Nawaz, MM, Iqbal, N, Ali, I,  Shaukat, Z & Usman, A (2010), Effects of motivational factors on employees job satisfaction: A case study of University of the Punjab, Pakistan. International Journal of Business & Management, 5(3), pp. 70-80. Ambrose, ML & Kulik, CT (1999), Old friends, new faces: Motivation research in the 1990s. Journal of Management, 25(3), pp. 231-292. Barling, J (1977) A critical review of the application of Maslow’s motivation theory in industry. Perspective in Industrial Psychology, 3(1), 1-21. 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Mason, OH: South Western. Rainey, HG (2009) Understanding and managing public organisations, 4th ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass / Wiley. Udechukwu, II (2009), Correctional officer turnover: Of Maslow’s needs hierarchy and Herzberg’s motivation theory. Public Personnel Management, 38(2), pp. 69-82. Usagami, J & Park, KY (2006), Similarities and differences in employee motivation viewed by Korean and Japanese executives: Empirical study on employee motivation management of Japanese-affiliated companies in Korea. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(2), 280-294. Read More