Principles of Major Behaviorist Learning Theories - Term Paper Example

Learning Theories Lecturer: Presentation: The paper explores behaviorist learning theories to address how people learn in the real world. Classical conditioning by Ian Pavlov tries to explain how behavior is learned by pairing conditional stimulus with unconditional stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Prediction of behavior in this case is more important than pairing since without it learning becomes extinct. Operant conditioning by B.F Skinner involves acquisition of learning through use of reinforcements and punishment. A response is strengthened by being rewarded otherwise extinction occurs. Neobehaviorists such as Tolman dispute the importance of reinforcements in learning and argue that learning can take place with or without them. Learning takes place when individuals develop cognitive maps hence decide what behavior is appropriate at a certain situation. However, subjects require motivation in order to exhibit the learned behavior. These theories are crucial in understanding how learning takes place in real life. Learning Theories All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness. Such is the view held by the behaviorist learning theories such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and neobehaviorism though neobehaviorists have tended to move towards use of mental processes (Lieberman, 2012). Behaviorism is based on the belief that behavior is learned through interaction with the environment; behavior shapes and is shaped by the environment. John Watson, recognized as the father of behaviorism once said that he can transform any child to whatever he wants it to become in future since a child’s mind is like an empty slate (Hergenhahn, 2009). Though these learning theories agree on the role played by environment in shaping learning, they differ in their underpinning principles. The purpose of this paper is thus to explain, compare, and contrast the major principles associated with each theory. The paper will discuss these behavior theories and their application to real world learning environment. First the paper will discuss the major principles associated with each theory. This will be done by comparing and contrasting the principles of each theory with the others. Secondly, it will explain the contributions of major theorists and how each theory accounts for mental processes associated with learning. Thirdly, the paper will describe how the theories explain how permanent change in behavior takes place and finally, how the theories can be applied in real world learning environment. Classical Conditioning This theory was advanced by Ian Pavlov and involves the use of conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Behavior in this case is acquired by interaction of subjects and their environments whereby a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus in the environment (Lieberman, 2012). The conditioned stimulus is used to signal that an unconditioned stimulus such as food is on the way hence eliciting a response that would otherwise have been elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. For example, in his experiment the conditioned stimulus (bell) was used to signal that unconditioned stimulus (food) was about to arrive hence eliciting a response in terms of salivation (conditioned response). The food on its own elicits salivation which is an unconditional response. In this case, the rat has learnt that a bell signifies that food will be brought hence the bell is a predictor of the unconditional stimulus (Weiten, 2012). However, without pairing the conditional stimulus with unconditional stimulus, there is no response since learning of the behavior has not taken place. The behavior is only acquired after several consistent pairings. Principles of Classical Conditioning There are various principles associated with this theory. The first principle according to Lieberman (2012) is that of unconditional stimulus (US). This refers to the naturally occurring stimulus that automatically triggers a response; for example, if one is hungry, the smell of food would definitely trigger an unconditional response of salivation in anticipation for the food. The smell of food in this case would be unconditional stimulus and must be present for conditioning to occur. The unlearned response (UR), in this case salivation is a natural, innate, involuntary physiological reflex elicited by an unconditional stimulus. The conditional stimulus (CS) is a formerly neutral stimulus that gains the ability to elicit response previously elicited by US while conditional response (CR) is a response elicited by CS which is similar to but not identical in size or amount to UR (Cherry, 2012). All these stimuli must be present for classical conditioning to take place otherwise the absence of one may lead to extinction or absence of learning. Acquisition is another principle of classical conditioning. This is the initial stage in the process of classical conditioning. The response in this case is established gradually and then strengthened and once response is acquired it is reinforced for it to be well learnt. It is based on the idea that conditioning does not occur to all the stimuli present in the situation rather, it is determined by the existence of new or unusual stimuli. If there were no new stimuli in the environment, then learning would not take place since the animal or human is accustomed to the already existing stimuli that do not elicit response (Cherry, 2012). The principle of extinction dictates that CS should continue to be paired with US for conditioning to take place. After acquiring the conditioned response, the experimenter may begin introducing the conditioned stimulus alone without pairing it with unconditional stimulus. At first, the subject would give a conditioned response but after repeated attempts, the conditioned response declines or disappears completely as the subject notices that the conditioned stimulus does not predict the occurrence of unconditional stimulus. Lieberman (2012) argues that prediction is therefore more important than pairing in eliciting a response. Cherry (2012) notes that extinction depends on the strength of the conditioned bond when extinction occurs hence some CS stimuli may continue eliciting CR even when introduced alone. The conditioned response after extinction may be elicited later if a conditional stimulus is introduced leading to spontaneous recovery. For example, if the bell is reintroduced after some time the dog may salivate but in decreased amount than earlier responses. According to Weiten (2012 p. 236) this may mostly happen if “the stimulus is introduced in a similar environment as the original environment where the acquisition occurred”. However, extinction occurs if pairing of CS-US does not occur. The extinction therefore, is seen as only suppressing the conditioned response rather than erasing the learned association. Stimulus generalization occurs where subject responds to similar stimuli as the CS that had elicited CR. For example, in this case, other sounds similar to the bell sound may elicit salivation in dogs. A study carried out by Watson on Albert showed that after eliciting a response from a loud starling sound and presentation of rat, the baby started fearing other creatures similar to a rat such as fur coat, dog, and rabbit (Weiten, 2012). Stimulus discrimination, unlike generalization occurs when the subject does not respond in the same way to new stimuli which is similar to original stimulus. However, as Weiten (2012) puts it, it depends on adequate experience with both CS and US. Major Theorist of Classical Conditioning The major theorist of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov. He is a physiologist who was studying the physiology of digestion in dogs while he discovered the theory. The experiment involved providing dogs with meat powder and salivation collected and measured. However, during the experiment he realized that dogs salivated at existence of other stimuli such as the smell of the person who was presenting the powder. He therefore, set out to conduct an experiment by introducing a bell just before the presentation of the meat powder and realized that the dogs started salivating at the sound of the bell though less saliva that when meat is presented. He also noted that the interval between the introduction of CS and US affected the response; a shorter time elicited more salivation than delayed US (Carlson, 2010). His discovery was therefore very crucial in establishment of this theory of conditioning which explains how behavior is learnt though psychic reflexes. According to this theory, no cognitive mental processes are involved in learning (Lieberman, 2012). This is because many creatures could respond to new stimuli as long as it was paired with the unconditional stimulus. According to the subjects, CS predicted US hence no thinking is required to determine if US will occur; it was clear that CS would be followed by US hence conditional response was elicited every time CS is introduced. Permanent Change in Behavior According to this theory, a permanent change in behavior occurred when the bond between CS and US was strengthened. Repeated pairings of CS-US in a certain environment strengthened the bond and ensured that such a response would be elicited provided the experiment was conducted in the same environment. The effect of unconditioned stimuli does not depend on previous experience but conditioned response depends on the pairing experience. Repeated pairings enhanced learning of the behavior especially if conducted in a short interval. If CS is paired with US but US also occurs at other times, no response is elicited by the CS so permanent change to occur the US should always be paired with CS (Bauton, 2007). The theory can be applied in real world learning environment. The theory is a predictor of what is going to happen hence it is useful in survival. For example, the appearance of heavy clouds is a predictor that rain will fall hence plan ahead. It also helps in setting up the learning atmosphere in classrooms to enhance learning; if environment is unfavorable no learning may take place since student’s associate good environment with pleasant results or in overcoming fear. It also leads to acquisition of likes and dislikes and attitudes which affect learning. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning by B.F Skinner involves learning behavior by use of reinforcements and punishment (Lieberman, 2012). Behavior is learned and reinforced if a reward is given for exhibiting such a behavior or if a negative reinforcement is given to strengthen a certain behavior. For example, if by studying hard one acquires good grades, then the student will want to continue studying hard. Negative reinforcement involves removal of an aversive stimulus while punishment involves use of actions like spanking to discourage a response or behavior. Punishment discourages the subject from making the response. Principles Just like classical conditioning, operant conditioning utilizes the principle of acquisition, extinction, generalization, discrimination and spontaneous recovery. Acquisition is the initial stage of learning where operant responses are established gradually through the shaping process. Shaping involves repeatedly reinforcing the designated response until a desired response is achieved (Weiten, 2012). For example, in Skinners experiment releasing food only the rat touches the lever increases the chances of rats pressing the lever so as to get the food. The experimenter in this case has the opportunity to reinforce designated response. Extinction occurs when the response weakens. This happens if response is not reinforced. The rat would stop pressing the lever if pressing the lever does not lead to provision of food. This is unlike classical conditioning where extinction results from not pairing CS and US. Depending on the schedule of reinforcement during acquisition, the behavior may be resistant to extinction hence occur even if reinforcement is not given. In classical conditioning this happens if subject is returned to the original environment (Carlson, 2010). Discrimination and generalization also occur in operant conditioning. In this case, a discriminative stimulus is used to signal the likeliness of a response being reinforced unlike classical conditioning where the CS predicts the US. Generalization occurs when subject responds to new stimulus that is similar to original discriminative stimulus while discrimination occurs if subject only responds to the original discriminative stimulus. Major Theorist Operant conditioning was discovered by B.F Skinner who conducted an experiment on rats and pigeons and discovered that responses increased when the behavior was reinforced. The behavior involved pressing of the lever by the rat and pecking of disk by pigeons and was reinforced by provision of food. In this case, the responses were voluntary hence were emitted rather than elicited like in classical conditioning (Weiten, 2012). He noted that responses were strengthened if the outcome followed immediately, and less if outcome is delayed. He also noted that partial reinforcement strengthened the response more than continuous reinforcement. Like unconditional stimulus which is natural, primary reinforcers are inherent as they satisfy physiological needs such as hunger and sex while secondary reinforcers acquire reinforcing quality by being associated with primary reinforcers just like CS is paired with US. The theory does not also involve cognitive processes as response is acquired by use of reinforcement for all creatures. The response thus describes the behavior of rats and pigeons and even humans but does not explain the behavior. The responses are emitted voluntarily without thinking since no complex mental processes are involved; provided there is positive or negative reinforcement, the response is strengthened and if punished the response is weakened. Permanent change in behavior occurs through partial reinforcements. If reinforcement is given continuously, its termination leads to extinction of the response but if reinforcement is given only some of the time, the response becomes more resistant to extinction (Lieberman, 2012). At first, the rat and pigeon do not press the lever of disk since they have no experience of getting a reward for such behavior. However, after much experience through reinforcement, they begin to press the lever and disk as they except reinforcement. Experience thus plays a major part in ensuring repetition of the behavior and enhancing learning; they learn through experience gained in interaction with the environment. Application of Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is mostly used in learning environment. In schools and businesses behavior is encouraged or discouraged through use of reward and punishments. If a teacher gives a student a reward for achieving high grades, then the student will work hard to achieve high grades next time or other students will also strive to perform well so as to get the reward. If student achieves high grades by studying hard, then he/she will continue studying hard but if in subsequent exams he/she studies hard and doesn’t get high grades, he//she may be discouraged from studying hard and give up. The same case in business, if rewards are withdrawn for workers they may stop performing well than when they know their hard work will be rewarded. Neobehaviorism Neobehaviorism is a theory associated with Edward Tolman and unlike classical and operant conditioning; the theory recognizes the use of cognitive mental processes (Lieberman, 2012). It is based on the belief that learning occurs with or without reinforcement. It involves use of purposive behavior by animals and humans. Principles Neobehaviorism is based on the principles of hypothesis, expectancy, belief, and cognitive map. The first step is formation of hypothesis that behaving in a certain way will lead to reward. If one behaves in that way and is rewarded, then the hypothesis is confirmed and the animal or individual will expect to get a similar reward in future. If that is the case and behavior is consistently rewarded, then a belief is formed. The subject in this case is aware of all possibilities hence forms a cognitive map of the situation and uses cognitive process to decide which alternative is rewarding (Hergenhahn, 2009). The response is thus as a result of thinking and thus the subject may fail to respond even if reinforcement is available. Major Theorist Edward Tolman is credited with this theory that resulted from an experiment carried out on rats (Hergenhahn, 2009). The rats were placed in a maze and can move in any direction but in this case food was placed in one direction and not the others. He discovered that rats posed for a while to decide whether to take the direction where food was placed or the other direction. Tolman also discovered that learning could take place with or without reinforcement. He proved this by use of three groups of rats: one group got reinforcement after running, the other got reinforcement sometimes and the other did not get reinforcements. The reinforced group performed better than others, but when the group without reinforcement was eventually reinforced, it performed better than the reinforced group. This was what Tolman called latent learning; animals leaned but could not perform due to lack of motivation. Permanent change in behavior takes place as animals and individuals form beliefs that lead to development of cognitive maps. The individual thus thinks before acting rather than responding to any stimuli in the environment. The subject is aware of what stimuli in the environment causes what behavior hence makes informed choice and learn constantly. Experience in this case does not affect learning; rather, it affects performance which then affects the translation of learning into behavior. The theory can be used in classroom setting to enable teachers to motivate learners to exhibit learned behavior. This is because learning takes place but its use depends on the motivational state of students. If they have problems, the teacher should be able to deal with them so as to enable the learner to concentrate. A businessman can give rewards to employees who perform well to enable them to apply what they have learnt through experience. Conclusion All behavior can be explained without the need to consider mental states or consciousness. Behaviorism learning theories tend to ignore the role played by cognitive processes in acquiring behavior. Instead, they emphasize the role of stimuli-response relationship of organisms and the environment. Classical conditioning by Pavlov is learning where conditional stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke response that was originally evoked by unconditional stimulus. The conditional response is present unless the conditional stimulus is presented alone without pairing it with unconditional stimulus leading to extinction. Operant conditioning by Skinner is based on the idea that reinforced behaviors continue while behaviors that are punished become extinct. The removal of reinforcement leads to extinction of learned behavior although some are resistant to extinction especially if reinforcement was not continuous. Neobehaviorism by Tolman is based on the idea that behavior can be learned with or without reinforcement and that subjects just need some motivation to display the learnt behavior. He thus rejects the role of reinforcement and appreciates role of cognitive maps in learning. These theories can be applied in actual learning as they affect attitudes, emotions, and the learning environment. They also stress role of reinforcements and rewards in enhancing learning. References Bouton, M. E. (2007). Learning and Behavior: A Contemporary Synthesis. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Carlson, N. R. (2010). Psychology: The Science of Behavior. New Jersey: Pearson Education Cherry, K. (2012, June 28). Principles of Classical Conditioning. Retrieved from http://www.psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/classcondbasics.htm Hergenhahn, B.R (2009) An Introduction to the History of Psychology. 6 ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage. Lieberman, D.A. (2012). Psychology of Learning. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education Weiten, W. (2012). Psychology: Themes and Variations. 9 ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Outline Classical Conditioning The theory is explained by looking at the principles that underlie it such as the relationship between stimuli and response, and the processes involved such as acquisition. The contribution of Pavlov is also acknowledged in explanation of how permanent change occurs and the application of theory to learning environment. Operant Conditioning It involves use of reinforcements and rewards and was put forward by B.F Skinner during his experimentation with rats and pigeons. Its principles include acquisition, extinction, generalization, and discrimination which result in permanent change in behaviour. The theory is thereafter applied in a real world learning environment. Neobehaviorism This is a theory advanced by Tolman and utilizes hypothesis, expectancy, beliefs, and cognitive maps as principles. Learning can take place with or without reinforcement hence latent learning enhanced through motivation. Cognitive mental processes are used to change behaviour and this process can be applied in real learning environment. Annotated Bibliography Bouton, M. E (2007) Learning and Behavior: A Contemporary Synthesis. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer The author is a leading researcher in the field of animal learning and a professor of psychology at the University of Vermont. His text gives a relationship between context, conditioning, and memory. He explores the principles of learning and behavior and explains important facts and theories and how learning can be translated to behavior. He also utilizes recent research. Carlson, N. R (2010) Psychology: The Science of Behavior. New Jersey: Pearson Education The author a professor at the University of Massachusetts gives details of psychological behavior. It explains the various behavior theories and real world application of research results. Cherry, K (2012) “Principles of Classical Conditioning” About.com Guide. Retrieved June 28, 2012 from http://www.psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/classcondbasics.htm The author at About.com guide website outlines and clearly explains the principles of classical conditioning. He recognizes principles such as acquisition, extinction, generalization, spontaneous recovery, and discrimination. In contrast, a study by Weiten cited below adds more principles such as conditioned stimuli and responses and unconditional stimulus and response. Hergenhahn, B.R (2009) An Introduction to the History of Psychology. 6 ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage. The author gives a clear picture of neobehaviorism by Tolman as a study of purposive behavior. He explains the process of hypothesis, expectancies, beliefs, and cognitive map development as the foundation of this theory. His main aim is to show the relationship between stimuli as well as the distinction between learning and performance. Lieberman, D.A (2012) Psychology of Learning. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education The author a scholar explains how learning principles revealed in animals can be applied to human behavior. His text gives an in-depth coverage of the key theories such as classical, operant conditioning. The audience is left to explore the logic of experiments. Weiten, W (2012) Psychology: Themes and Variations. 9 ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage The author from university of Nevada, Las Vegas gives a detailed explanation of the various behavioral theories. He also gives real life examples of how the theories can be applied in a learning situation and the principles and processes of each theory and their comparison. He also gives a background of the individuals behind those theories. . Read More