Contemporary Development of the Psycho-dynamic Tradition of Counseling - Assignment Example

OUTCOME Evaluate the contemporary development of the psychodynamic tradition of counseling. In some sectors of the academic community, the psychodynamic counseling is seen as some product of the nineteenth-century psychoanalytic tradition that is characterized by biological determinism, a negative view of human nature, the clinical practice that emphasizes on the male gender, as well as a paternalistic and cold relationship between the therapist and the client. However, wrote Palmer and McMahon, much of this opinion assumes that knowledge is fixed and unchanging and that it fails to take into account the vast developments that have taken place in analytic and psychodynamic theory and practice in recent years. (p. 9) Psychodynamic counseling emerged from the psychoanalytic theory, wherein it has drawn its fundamental assumptions about human growth and development. Palmer, Dainow and Milner (1996) explained that the dynamic part of the word psychodynamics refers to the regulation of the psyche, in which defensive activities take place to regulate or control impulses or anxiety that is generated from within the self or in response to external stimuli. (p. 7) The authors also added that the psychodynamic approach describes the relationship between counselor and client, which provides an opportunity for a smooth interchange of thoughts, feelings and projections. (p. 7) The development of contemporary psychodynamic counselling tradition is demonstrated in the following areas: psychoanalysis, self psychology, individual psychology, object relations and attachment theory. Some of these will be briefly explained in the following sections. Psychoanalysis In the body of literature of psychodynamics and psychoanalysis, the terms psychodynamic and psychoanalysis are often used interchangeably. According to Fall, Holden and Marquis (2004), this is not surprising because psychodynamic theories retains significant similarities to psychoanalysis as each is guided by the central concept that a person’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are profoundly influenced by psychological processes and mental representations that are, to some degree, unconscious. (p. 71) In addition to this, each affirms the formative impact of early caretaker-child interactions on one’s present experience, the development of personality through invariant stages, and the presence and importance of defences, transference, and the interpretation of a person’s psychic material in a therapeutic process. (p. 71) Early on, the psychodynamic theory had dealt with the task of integration of all its areas from a psychoanalytic foundation through the acceptance of new ideas to its principles. This development was explained in more detail by Norcross and Goldfried (2005) and to quote: Initially, it was the interpersonal perspective in psychoanalysis that seemed to offer the best conceptual tools for bringing together both the observations that had long been central to the psychoanalytic point of view and the further observations, generally ignored or overlooked by psychoanalysts, that derive from other orientations that were entering into the new synthesis. (p. 190) Norcross and Goldfried cited the current and ongoing efforts to refine and further elaborate on the psychodynamic point of view that is focused on the convergences with and differences from other relational theories. All in all, it is important to point out that some theorists have successfully simplified the psychoanalytic methods into short-term psychodynamic approach so that it can be more efficient, economical and appropriate for counseling settings today. (Kottler and Shepard 2007, p. 144) Self Psychology The development of psychodynamic counseling is also demonstrated in the field of self-psychology. This theory is considered as the most recent of the four main schools of psychodynamic thought that emerged from Sigmund Freud’s pioneering psychoanalysis. Freud was able to influence several notable psychologists in his work on psychoanalysis. Most will have heard of Jung as well as Erikson, Melanie Klein and Fairbairn, all of whom have taken Freudian ideas in wide ranging directions. One can see in the works of these clinicians how self-psychology has demonstrated the way psychodynamic counseling has evolved through the years. For instance, there is the work of the American psychoanalyst, Heinz Kohut, who theorized deficit rather than a conflict theory as he emphasized the value of regression for clients who have undeveloped sense of self. (Howard 2009, p. 78) Kohut’s works, just like those of the other psychoanalysts that credited Freud as a major influence, was able to contribute several successful techniques to clinical psychodynamic counseling. What these tell us is that self-psychology reflected how psychodynamic theories have been most frequently named as exclusive or primary guiding theories among mental health professionals presently. Object Relations The object-relations theory is not like earlier psychodynamic/psychoanalytic theories in the sense that it sees humans as chiefly motivated by relationships. Papadopoulos, Cross and Bor (2003) explained that object-relations are the interpersonal relationships as they are depicted intraphysically and that it used transference as a tool intensively – a strategy that traces reflects its psychodynamic counseling dimensions. (p. 203) Here, the therapist must work with the transference relationship, but essentially have to retain the positive, reality-based strategy towards a therapeutic alliance. This highlights how object-relations theory demonstrates the diversity and flexibility of psychodynamics counseling. As this specific theory differs from the others under the psychodynamic field, clinicians, counselors and psychoanalysts have better and wide-ranging alternatives and strategies to choose from, in dealing with the different cases of individual-patients. Attachment Theory When analyst John Bowlby wrote and published his propositions in regard to the concept of attachment in the Journal Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, it became very controversial especially among the psychoanalytic sector and among psychodynamic counselors. The attachment theory was developed out of Bowlby’s psychoanalytic training and his work and that it theorized that the foundations of human development is laid in the early months of life, through a passing from quasi-symbiotic, dependent relationship to distinguishing self and other, and integrating good and bad experience. (Jacobs 2005, p. 87) It is important to note, that today, Bowlby’s theory has attained popularity in certain sectors of counselors that could rival the influence of Klein or Winnicott. Bowlby’s works on the attachment theory, along with other notable theorists such as Mary Ainsworth, Mary Main and Peter Fonagy, contribute something to the wider discourse of psychodynamic counseling by explaining the objective and emphasizing the environment and the observable in counseling, psychoanalysis and psychodynamics. OUTCOME 2: Evaluate the dynamics of counselling within the psychodynamic tradition of counseling. Therapeutic relationship in contemporary psychodynamic counseling. Therapeutic relationship in the context of contemporary psychodynamic counseling is dominated by person-centred counseling and humanistic practitioners. Jacobs emphasized, however, that it is also more complex than that because besides these two variables, psychodynamic counseling also uses the transference and counter-transference approaches. (p. 123) Jacobs argument is not surprising. The reason for this is that the factors that he mentioned make psychodynamic counseling, through its therapeutic relationship, unique due to the highly complicated and interactive partnership at both conscious and unconscious levels between the counselor and the patient. The therapeutic relationship is perhaps the most important factor that contributes to the effectiveness of all forms of counseling. Here, a client who enters into counseling, ideally enters into a relationship with someone who aims to be interested, concerned, neutral, non-judgmental, accepting, consistent, stable, balanced, benign, trustworthy, warm and nurturing. (Holmes 1999, p. 24) All in all, it is important to underscore in this evaluation that without therapeutic relationship, there can be no therapy. According to Feltham (1999), this analogy applies to all forms of counseling and therapy even if the relationship is seen mainly as an adjunct to the presumed effective component, which might, for example, be a set of homework tasks, practicing specific relaxation techniques, or a structural intervention in family therapy. (p. 33) Again, in psychodynamic counseling, instead of functioning as a mere vehicle for the delivery of specific model of therapy, the relationship itself becomes the focus for the therapeutic activities because, for the psychodynamic clinician or counselor, the medium is the mutative element. Therapeutic process in contemporary psychodynamic counselling. Psychodynamic counselors and psychotherapists regard various aspects of the therapeutic process as important and as their particular responsibility. This process, as Dryden and Mytton (1999) explained, is characterized by: the setting or the physical environment in which clients can talk freely without being distracted by things in the room or noises outside; the boundaries and the contract, wherein clients use the time offered and respond to the boundaries set as well as the contract involving the length of time of the therapy, the number of sessions and so forth; techniques to be used such as free association, in interpretation, working with resistance, working with transference, among others. (p. 46-49) According to Corey (2009), the process of psychodynamic therapy is somewhat like putting the pieces of a puzzle together and that whether clients change depends considerably more on their readiness to change than on the accuracy of the therapist’s interpretations. (p. 70) The process puts importance in the relationship between the therapist and the client and could take as many and as diverse approaches depending on the client’s needs. Two important stages in the therapeutic process are the interpretation and the assessment stages. A major function of interpretation is to accelerate the process of uncovering unconscious material as the therapist listens for gaps and inconsistencies in the client’s story and as he determines the meaning of reported dreams and free associations, and remains sensitive to clues concerning the client’s feelings towards him as the analyst. (Corey, p. 70) Assessment, on the other hand, is required in order to gather enough and appropriate information that would lead to the formulation of the client’s difficulties to determine whether a psychodynamic intervention is one that the client wants, can use, can be offered within the time-frame available and at an acceptable level of risk. (Howard, p. 116) This area in psychodynamic counseling show how the process has become intricate and could be designed to assure success in the entire therapeutic period. The application of different approaches within the contemporary psychodynamic tradition to clients needs. The psychodynamic approach, according to Plante, can be classified according to several categories. This include the traditional Freudian perspective, the revisionist perspective, and the modern object relations perspective. (p. 118) The application of the different approaches of the psychodynamic therapy in the context of the contemporary setting is represented by many strategies that demonstrate greatly adapted and broadened models that have been tried and tested over the past 100 years. However, such modern applications still maintain certain traditional assumptions about human behavior and psychological problems. For instance, there is the psychodynamic perspective that emphasizes the intrapsychic drives, motives, conflicts and impulses. (Plante, p. 118) Other important dimensions to the modern application of the psychodynamic tradition are reflected in the use of experiences and relationships in analyzing psychological developments, the use of transference and countertransference as tools, among other factors. Out of all the considerations found in the body of literature in regard to the application of different approaches within the contemporary psychodynamic therapy, there is an important factor that must be explained. The economic reality in the psychodynamic practice should not be ignored, however noble the motives of most therapists. Leiper and Maltby (2004) explained that, psychodynamic therapy requires a long and expensive training and is usually more extended than other therapeutic approaches. (p. 142) Because of this psychodynamic therapy may be expensive for clients who need it. Strengths and weaknesses of contemporary counseling relation to client needs. Kaslow et al. (2002), identified several strengths that characterize contemporary counseling in relation to the clients needs. These include the facts that: Dynamic theory is in general no better and no worse in benefits than other therapies; A good deal of research on the field has appeared in recent years to support its efficacy; Psychodynamic therapy for patients may be cost-effective when comparing the cost of health care provision. (p. 593) Zeig (1992) also upheld the positive side of psychodynamic model for patients because, in his words, there are tremendous benefits (including those above) in a unified approach to psychological treatment based on effective strategies drawn from diverse theories and approaches, just like what the psychodynamic field has demonstrated. (p. 107) In regard to weaknesses, Jones and Butman (1991) identified that the intimate connection between theory and therapy in contemporary psychodynamic models could be a fatal weakness, especially for those who aspire to a more objective science of psychology. His reasoning is that because all knowledge of internal dynamics comes from the therapy process, in which the therapist is intimately involved, all conclusions are subject to interpretations and distortions of the therapist. (p. 114) Here, there is a tendency to have the conclusions of the theories from hi or her own individual dynamics difficult to separate. References Corey, G. (2009). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. New York: Cengage Learning. Dryden, W. and Mytton, J. (1999). Four approaches to counselling and psychotherapy. London: Routledge. Fall, K., Holden, J. and Marquis, A. (2004). Theoretical models of counseling and psychotherapy. New York: Psychology Press. Feltham, C. (1999). Understanding the counselling relationship. London: SAGE. Holmes, J. (1999). "The Relationship in Psychodynamic Counselling." In Colin Felthams (ed.) Understanding the counselling relationship. London: SAGE. Howard, S. (2009). Skills in Psychodynamic Counselling and Psychotherapy. London: SAGE Publishing. Jacobs, M. (2005) The presenting past: the core of psychodynamic counselling and therapy. New York: McGraw-Hill International. Jones, S. and Butman, R. (1991). Modern psychotherapies: A comprehensive Christian appraisal. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Kaslow, F., Magnavita, J., Patterson, T., Massey, R., Massey, S. and Lebow, J. (2002). Comprehensive Handbook of Psychotherapy: Psychodynamic. John Wiley and Sons. Kottler, J. and Shepard, D. (2007). Introduction to Counseling: Voices from the Field. New York: Cengage Learning. Leiper, R. and Maltby, M. (2004). The psychodynamic approach to therapeutic change. London: SAGE. Norcross, J. and Goldfried, M. (2005). Handbook of psychotherapy integration. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Palmer, S. and MacMahon, G. (1997). Handbook of counselling. London: Routledge. Papadopoulos, L., Cross, M. and Bor, R. (2003). Reporting in counselling and psychotherapy: a trainees guide to preparing case studies and reports. New York: Psychology Press. Palmer, S, Dainow, S. and Milner, P. (1996). Counselling: the BAC counselling reader, Volume 1. London: SAGE Publications. Plante, T. (2005). Contemporary clinical psychology. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons. Zeig, J. (1992). The Evolution of Psychotherapy. New York: Psychology Press. Read More