Psychology as Gateways to Mind and Behavior - Essay Example

Psychology Answers for question Cognitivism Strength- its main aim is to coach a learner to do things the same way so as to realize consistency. Weakness-through coaching, the learner learns a specific way of doing something which might not be the best way recommended for the situation or the learner. Constructivism Strength- this approach enables the learner to learn several ways of doing things and therefore the learner is in a position to interpret several realities in life. The learner becomes a good problem solver. Weakness-this approach is a draw back in areas where conformity thinking is required since it is necessary for divergent thinking. Behaviorism Strength- the learner targets a clear goal and is very familiar with the goals’ requirements. Weakness- the learners may occasionally not find the right stimulus for the right response. Answers for question # 2 Sapir-Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis proposes that “the particular language we speak influences the way we think about reality” (Dennis & John, 2008). This hypothesis, however, has met a lot of critics from other psychologists. For example, Carol suggested that this hypothesis still needs much attention as there are controversies that still surround it. She stated, “Perhaps it is the suggestion that all one’s life one has been tricked, all unaware, by the structure of the language into a certain way of perceiving reality” (Dennis & John, 2008). The essence of her statement is that, when people grow up and begin realizing reality from their own experiences, they may start disputing what their languages initially taught them. Answers for question # 3 Crystallized intelligence this is the capacity to utilize knowledge, experience and skills. It should not be likened to knowledge or memory as it does not depend on finding information from long-term memory. Fluid intelligence also called fluid reasoning is the ability to solve problems and think logically in every situation irrespective of the acquired knowledge. It includes both the deductive and inductive reasoning. It involves application of the best logics in solving problems. Answers for question # 4 Both the aptitude and achievement tests determine a learner’s general performance over a wide range of mental capabilities. However, the amplitude test further measure specialized abilities including numerical and verbal skills to guess the student’s earlier academic performance in educational programs. Achievement tests are closely associated with the current achievements on specific school subjects. Answers for question # 5 The validity of a standardized test is its usefulness and accuracy. Reliability of a standardized test on the other side is the capacity of the standardized test to give consistence results. Both the parameters are used by psychologists to effectively measure what they are testing. It is important to note that validity depends on reliability i.e. validity is not applicable without reliability. Answers for question # 6 Mental retardation refers to an individual’s current level of functioning. The primary levels of mental retardation that psychologists use to classify people include limitation in adaptive behavior and limitation in intelligence. Accurate diagnosis involves three components; origins of disability before 18 years of age, determinations of adaptive behavior shortfalls, and IQ score of about &0 or below. Answers for question # 7 Intellectually gifted people are more efficient at leaning new ideas and performing activities more than normally intelligent individuals. The success of an individual in life based on the IQ score is relative in, that intellectually gifted people have to exercise their gifts effectively to achieve success in life. But generally, intellectually gifted people have been observed to come up with new ideas, discoveries and developments that have made them more successful in life than the normally intellectual individuals. Answers for question # 8 Culture-fair IQ test is designed to eliminate any cultural or social advantages and disadvantages that a person may be associated to due to their upbringing. It is important in that it helps identify emotional and learning problems. Advantage- it can be performed on any one irrespective of their nation and language they speak. Disadvantage-there is uncertainty whether the test can be culturally unbiased or if it can be administered with complete fairness to every one. Answers for question # 9 The main focus in the book, “The Bell Curve”, is that intelligence is basically influenced by the environment and genetics that also predict many personal dynamics in an individual’s future life. There are several parts that criticize this belief. One of the criticisms is the validity of IQ and g. Stephen Jay made the following assumptions and concluded that if any of these bases are false, then their whole arguments disintegrates (Dennis & John, 2008). 1) Intelligence must be essentially immutable 2) Intelligence must be able to rank individuals in a linear order. 3) Intelligence must be reducible to a whole number. 4) Basically intelligence must be genetically based. Another critic is that based on race and intelligence. According to Chomsky, there is no relationship between intelligence and race. He argued that this has no social influence and it may only have in racial societies where individuals are grouped and dealt with as members of that group but not in accordance to their rights as individuals. In addition, Joseph L Graves explained the Bell Curve as one of the racist science. According to Graves, the Bell curve contained all sorts of errors that have characterized the history of science applications such as the hypothesis were not supported by any data, calculation errors that invariably supported the hypothesis, and data that contradicts the hypothesis were not mentioned. Answers for question # 10 Mental Imagery is the human capacity to visualize pictures inside their minds after the real object or stimuli has disappeared. It helps in skill development in, that it assists an individual to recall current thoughts and memories. Internalized images help individuals to remember concepts presented to them and also act as a basis upon which thoughts are encoded to remember old ideas. Answers for question # 11 Prototypes are early models upon which processes or concepts are tested. Concepts are the fundamental features or properties that help us to recognize things as, say a “glass” or “a goat”. Both the concept and the prototypes are useful in that they lead to discovery of new ideas and directions through provocations and disturbances in the ordinary process of thinking. Answers for question # 12 The first step in problem solving process is the problem definition: It is important to identify and write down the problem you intend to solve. For example, when your computer can not switch on, you have to clearly identify that the problem at that moment is that your computer can not switch on. The second step is the problem analysis: At this stage we have to identify our current location, situation and the most probable cause of this problem. In our case of a computer we have to check if the problem to switch the computer on is as a result of, poor connection of cables, power black out or mechanical break down. The final stage is generating possible solutions for the problem: it is important to come up with several relevant solutions for a single problem. This enables us to identify the most appropriate solution that solves our problems satisfactorily enough. If a computer can not switch on, confirm whether power is available then ensure that all the cables are properly installed at the right positions. If it does not switch on still, then it is advisable to take it to a technician. Answers for question # 13 Arrangement problems are problems that are designed. They happen to have prior solutions before they are caused to happen. Examples are mathematical and scientific questions which are given to students to solve, although they have specific solutions or answers. Problem of induction is the problem that questions whether knowledge is as a result of inductive reasoning. It seeks to establish the legitimacy of the empirical claims made daily or through scientific techniques. For example the earlier belief that all donkeys had one color until the discovery of black donkeys. Transformational problems are problems that involve three methods namely objective, mindset, and approach. It determines whether a problem is complex or simple, small or large, and held by a team or an individual. It mainly aims at solving problems a rising from implementation of new strategies and practical directions. Answers for question # 14 Functional fixedness is a function that restricts an individual to use an object specifically in the way it is originally used. It is a negative factor in a context where a subject wants to use a familiar object to solve a problem in unfamiliar situation. The end result is that the subjects can not use this familiar object to solve the problem just because they cannot overcome this cognitive bias. Answers for question # 15 There are two factors that are majorly found to correlate to creativity. They include cognitive flexibility and divergent thinking. Divergent thinkers are restricted to think within a specified area. They refine and create unusual but relevant solutions to problems. Cognitive complexity entails the liking to illustrate the thought and complex stimuli. Individuals who have cognitive complexity are majorly observed to be abstract thinkers and their skills and interests are greatly varied. Intelligence is a characteristic that has been established not to correlate well with creativity since convergent thinking are typically measured by traditional intelligence tests but not divergent thinking. Answers for question # 16 The instinct approach proposes that individuals are inspired by the biologically determined internal forces. This approach is insufficient in explaining most human behaviors because it only explains the meaning of behavior but can not describe the reasons as to why individuals do what they do. Answers for question # 17 Drive reduction theory suggests that human have internal biological needs that drive them to perform certain activities. An example is internal feelings such as thirst that drives an individual to drink water. Arousal theory is the state of intellectual, emotional, and physical activity. This theory differs from the drive reduction theory in that it also relies on balanced amount other than reduction of tension only. The two theories however, both suggest that people are driven by some internal feelings that must be satisfied in order to feel comfortable. Answers for question # 18 Intrinsic motivation is a motivation that relies on the person but not on the external factors. Such motivations are fueled by the enjoyment or the interests in the activity itself. Intrinsic motivation directly influences an individual’s enjoyment and educational achievements. Extrinsic motivation is affected by the external pressures outside an individual. It involves motivating individuals through rewards such as money. Through reward students are encouraged to work hard in class. Answers for question # 19 The Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was proposed by Abraham Maslow and it states, that the fundamental level of basic needs must be satisfied first before satisfying other higher level secondary needs. It is in the form of pyramid with the need for self-actualization at the apex and the largest and most basic needs level at the bottom. Maslow also described the term metamotivation so as to explain the inspiration of individuals who go beyond the basic needs and seek constant success. Answers for question # 20 The belief that alcohol is a tool that reduces stress among the alcoholics is a social problem that results from alcohol consumption. Such people, whenever they have problems, are observed to consume more alcohol instead of following the right procedures for solving the problem. In the end, they become alcohol addicts and such people are considered as the lazy individuals in the society. Older adult cancer patients believe that under eating is the best channel to be followed in order to loose weight. In such cases, it is not easy to convince them to continue eating more food. Food has also been observed as a social tool. People come from different region and converge at a specific location (market) where they buy and sell food. This leads to interactions and exchange of culture and even language. Answers for question # 21 Bulimia is an eating disorder which is associated with repeated short periods of binge eating which is usually followed by purging so as to avoid weight gain. This has an effect on the body’s electrolytes, teeth and the general health of an individual. Bulimia nervosa is related to the exercise bulimia in that they are both performed in order to loose body weight. Just like bulimics purge, exercise bulimics get angry and agitated if they are unable to perform an exercise in the efforts to purge. Answers for question # 22 Most health experts have advised people, that the best and the most effective way to reduce body weight is to keep a food diary of the food you take. The keeping of the food diaries have the following advantages; it helps to understand behavioral and eating patterns and it also helps to acknowledge and curb binge eating habits. Regular exercises such as walking, running and performing daily house chores is also one of the ways to loose body weight since such activities helps in burning excess calories and fats. Answers for question # 23 The nurture theory of sexual development orientation explains that our gender is influenced by the environmental factors, specifically in the way we are brought up by our guardians, parents, relative and friends. Dr. John money suggests that we are psychological neutral at birth (Ashworth, 2002). The nature theory of sexual orientation proposes that gender is determined by the individual’s hormones on their developing brain. Answers for question # 24 Based on the levels of hormones which a baby is predisposed to during its fetal stages determine the genitalia which are formed to determine whether male or female and the interactional theory whereby the sociology of the infant to its adulthood will shape up what he/she will be oriented towards in terms of gender Answers for question # 25 These are some of the attitudes which initiate a drive in different personalities that propels them to perform in various careers. For example, an individual with the need of power is well suited to perform as a manager who will pool together employees, efforts in accomplishing the organization’s goals. TAT is administered in the form of a series of ambiguous pictures, from which an individual is required to give spontaneous answers which portray his/her needs. These answers thus serve as measurements of needs that determine suitability to certain professions. Answers for question # 26 Emotions communicate non-verbally, e.g. crying baby may communicate discomfort 1. Emotions can portray certainty of points a person is trying to convey thus form self-validation. Emotions influence people in one’s environment. 2. Emotions do motivate actions e.g. frustrations and dissatisfaction at work can propel one to change career or write a resignation letter. Answers for question # 27 The theory explains that human emotions are an interpretation of physiological responses to external stimuli in one’s environment. Answers for question # 28 There were 184 male participants who were exposed to 4 different treatments using adrenaline and placebo. Some were informed and others not informed.Emotions felt were anger and euphoria, the two-factor theory of emotion was then proved despite different treatments. Cognitions play an important role in determining our arousals. Sucking reflex-The response by an infant’s mouth when something comes in contact with the lips e.g. milk bottle or nipple of the breast. Answers for question # 29 a) Grasp reflex- Well demonstrated when a finger is placed on an open palm of an infant. The infant responds by quickly and firmly grasping the finger. b) Stepping reflex- When a newborn is lifted slightly above a surface, the feet move as if they are stepping in the air. Most of the reflexes present at infancy die off gradually as one matures since the reflex is not needed e.g. suckling. Some of those which remain are essential throughout one’s life e.g. stepping, grasping, yawning, blinking, sneezing etc. Answers for question # 30 In summary, children who attend day care tend to be better equipped in their academics since they are exposed to well-trained personnel and learning tools at an early stage. They also interact with other children from diverse backgrounds which sharpens their interpersonal skills. But, they also sometimes adopt some mannerisms away from home which their parents may not agree with. Answers for question # 31 In comparison, children who stay home tend to have better personal traits instilled by their caregivers/ parents although this may be at the expense of quality education in case these individuals are not well trained. Answers for question # 32 Kohlberg would use the level 4: Law and order orientation of the conventional stage in moral reasoning. The student would want to cheat so as to pass exams and make an achievement. But on the flipside; this decision would be wrong in the society and also punishable according to the school’s laws. Thus, the student would decide not to cheat so as to finish his studies without a bad record. Answers for question # 33 Some of the signs include: depression, withdrawal from friends, excess use of alcohol and drugs, drastic behavioral changes, dishing out worthy possessions, toying with thoughts of death, loss of interest in self, previous suicidal attempts. Actions that can help include: removing any drugs or objects deemed fatal, talking openly and listening, seeking help from agencies and not giving dares. Answers for question # 34 “Second shift” refers to the unpaid additional work, after the “first shift” where they are employed, which awaits employed women with children at home e.g. washing clothes &dishes, mopping, cooking, ironing, baby-care, assisting with assignments, shopping & taking care of the family. Answers for question # 35 The division of labor is usually skewed toward women doing more labor than the men even if both are employed. Answers for question # 36 Research shows that sa one ages, they lose a lot of their cognitive ability due to less thiamine available to neural syatem, depression, 1% brain cell loss per year and other factors. The long term memory has a longer life span than short term memory. Answers for question # 37 Freud’s model of personality encompasses three portions of psychic apparatus including: Id- the unconscious part which strives towards pleasure and self-indulgence, ego-the conscious part that follows a realistic principle and helps one to assimilate thoughts and superego-that which critics the id in helping an individual do what is morally right and socially acceptable as opposed to selfish passions. A balance in these components develops an individual with a mature character Answers for question # 38 “Defense mechanism” is a means by which the ego protects the alert mind from mind-set and attitudes which it cannot deal with. Sublimation is a mechanism where negative energy is turned into positive use e.g. Instead of hitting an irritating teacher, a student channels the urge into doing sums in algebra. Reaction formation occurs when an opposite impulse is done so as to minimize anxiety e.g. sharing lunch with a bully who has misplaced his/her lunch. Some of the critisms are: The theory was difficult to empirically quantify but the theory finally contributed to tentative psychology His theoretical models arose from harmonized test groups Studies involved in the theory were costly due to the distance involved between client and the therapist Freud was referring to the unconscious mind and childhood incidents a lot. Methodologies were inflexible That he based it a lot on the unconscious mind Answers for question # 39 Cardinal Traits: The qualities which tend to govern a person’s life until they become part of the individuality e.g Freudian-like person Central Traits: The qualities which form basic characteristics of a person and they can be found shared by others e.g. integrity, diligence Secondary Traits: These are the qualities which only arise if triggered by some situations or environmental conditions e.g. fear, short temper Answers for question # 40 Some of the limitations of genetics is that it does not factor in that the individual’s environment including people can change personality traits which may have been instilled by genes. Answers for question # 41 Some of the key differences between the two are in type of evidence available and type of tests administered .A projective test is a personality test developed to provoke emotions in comparison to self-report test whose results are analyzed against to standardized responses e.g , a multiple choice exam Answers for question # 42 This technique is used to bring out information about the dynamics and structure of the functionality and personality of an individual. It also gives information of an individual’s motivations, perception, attitude, towards the environment. Answers for question # 43 Some considerations include consistency in measuring qualities (reliability), validity and how acceptable the test was by the applicant. Reference Dennis C, John. O.M. (2008). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior. New York: Cengage Learning. Read More