The Important Perspectives on Motor Development: Dynamic Systems Theory - Literature review Example

In the domain of psychology, the crux of developmental theory can be regarded as organized principles or systems that analyze several principles (Levine & Munsch, 2010, p. 30) and explanations related to various aspects of the development of child. The developmental theories have been highly applicable in the field of psychology, sociology, cognitive sciences and areas of teaching assisting the researchers, academicians, teachers and so on in understanding developmental phases and behavioral patterns of child at different stages of their growth and help drawing useful inferences and innovative findings to enrich theoretical perspectives and add to this vast arena of research various unsolved questions associated with the developmental phases of children (Isard, 1989, p.7). In a synchronized manner these theories help in describing, explaining and predicting behaviors (Larsen, n.d., p.6). The developmental theories also help in properly interpreting the behavioral interpretations. There is a wide array of research on the developmental theories and the stalwarts whose name are associated with the domain of developmental theory are Alfred Bandura,  Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Skinner and John Watson, Lev Vygotsky and so on (Feldman & Feldman, n.d., p. 22). The theories developed by these social scientists to name a few are biological-maturational theory, ecological theory, cognitive-developmental theory, socio cultural theory and so on (Ehlers, 2010, p. 906). In this paper, six case studies of child behavior will be analyzed along with the application with various developmental theories. But before that a brief literature review regarding the behavioral theories associated with child development will be provided. . 1. Developmental theories and areas of controversies The developmental theorist through their developmental theories examines and visualizes the process of development arising out of different controversies. First of all they stress on whether development results primarily from the nature that is biological forces or that of genetic forces or that of the environmental forces. The second controversy centers around the notion that whether development is characterized by a universal mechanism that is the common experiences that generate different predictable patterns of outcomes or that of diversity which include disparate experiences that generate diverse outcomes. The third controversy is that whether the child is an active agent or a passive agent in the process of developmental progression. The fourth controversy centers around the result of qualitative changes which includes sudden periods of rapid growth and that of reorganizations in which the outcomes vary from the prior stages or that of quantitative changes which can be attributed to the gradual addition of new skills to that of the previous skills. 2. Cognitive development theory In the domain of cognitive theory of development, the name of Jean Piaget is of immense importance. He was the developer of cognitive developmental theories. The cognitive developmental theories emphasize on the active role which the individuals play in the developmental process. The psychologists of the cognitive development paradigm states that the process of development occurs in an ordered sequence in qualitatively distinct stages which are characterized by the rise in complexities. This theoretical perspective perceives the role of developing person in the process as active and not reactive. Piaget (1896-1980) exhibited extensive research about the child’s quest for knowledge. His major attributes of a philosopher and partly a biologist has been combined and the development of a stimulating theory which focuses on the process of development is arrived. Scientific method has been applied by the trained biologist Piaget to answer various psychological questions and exhibited concerted efforts in minimizing the gap between psychology and science. Piaget highlighted on one special branch of philosophy and that is epistemology which is basically knowledge of science which targets at the way in which it is acquired. The nature of man’s contribution to the understanding of the developmental process is best represented by the various types of questions his approach encourages him to ask. The questions which are required to be answered are “What is learning? Is the way things appear really the same as what they are? What is the process through which knowledge is acquired? What roles do direct experience and innate reasoning play in development? How does a child differentiate between an idea and what the idea represents?” (Salkind, 2004, p.230). The branch which Piaget developed is known as genetic epistemology. The term genetic in the name denotes the concept that development takes place through progression from one level to another level. His study of the science of knowledge changes through the course of development of an individual. Genetic epistemology does not proscribe any particular methods nor does it define any variables which are important in examining. The domain of genetic epistemology establishes an arena of inquiry to which rigorous and objective methods can be applied. The cognitive developmental theorists stress on the role of the organism as active rather than reactive (Salkind, 2004, p.231). In this respect, Erikson’s theory of psychosexual development can be considered. He formulated eight major developmental stages with each stage directing towards unique developmental task and simultaneously exhibits the individual with a crisis that he must struggle through. Erikson, in 1980 stated that the “individuals develop a healthy personality by mastering life’s outer and inner dangers”. The process of development basically follows an epigenetic principle which states that “anything that grows has a ground plan, and out of this grand plan the parts arise, each having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have risen to form a functioning whole” ( Gines et al, n.d., p. 24). Erikson states that each part of the personality basically possesses a particular time in the life span when it must develop, if it is deemed to develop at all. If a capacity is not developed within a particular time frame then the remaining part of development can be seen to be altered in an unfavorable manner and the individual faces constraints in properly dealing with the reality (Gines et al, n.d., p. 24). 3. Biological maturational theory The biological maturational theory states that the genetic and psychological changes add to the developing structures within the body (Allen & Marotz, 2010, p. 3). The development of brain and motor capabilities as for instance occur in an automatic process without any learning or instructions. The changes in the abilities can be a gradual or sudden process which depends on the type of development. As for instance it can be stated that learning to walking can be regarded as a result of gradual changes within psychological capabilities as well as the structure of brain. There is also certain development during the stage of puberty as a result of change in the hormonal levels in the body (Gordon & Browne, 2012, p. 74). 4. Behavioral dimensions In the behaviorist theory development and learning from this perspective can be associated with the environmental influences. B.F. Skinner also developed on various other behaviorist theorists by providing rewards and punishment. He believed that there exist a great deal of diversity in the behavior and learning processes as all the children possess different experiences of different rewards and punishment from the adults in their lives (Shaffer, 2009, p. 45). 5. Socio cultural theories The socio cultural theory focuses on the way in which culture gets transmitted to the next generation through processes like language and social interaction. Working with the adults and more skilled peers is necessary for the children in acquiring different ways of thinking, knowing as well as behaving that make up the culture of a community (Cole & Smith, 2007, p. 54). Looking from this perspective, knowledge is basically actively and constructed socially with interactions among the other people (Focarelli, 2012, p. 35). The role of biology cannot also be ignored and it is perceived to be playing a less direct role in the cognitive development (Lask & Frampton, 2011, p.27). The inherited traits also influence different ways in which the child approaches the environment and impacts different types of experiences which she faces. There is close association with development of the children including physical, emotional and cognitive dimensions (Promoting Health: Intervention Strategies from Social and Behavioral Research, 2000). The process of development occurs in a sequential manner and the abilities like skills and knowledge are built on the basis of these already acquired cognitive dimensions. The advancement of development proceeds at varying rates from different child and they are unevenly distributed within different areas of functioning of child. The development also advances in various predictable directions towards domain of greater complexities, organization as well as internalization. The process of development and learning takes place and are influenced by diverse cultural as well as social contexts (Aykin, 2009, p. 20). Now we will analyze the case studies and relate them with different developmental theory for the purpose of properly understanding the phenomenon associated with descriptions given in the case studies. 6. Case 1- Application of Sensorimotor stage Sensorimotor stage is the basic stage in the child’s life which stretches from 0 to 2 years (Piaget’s 4 stages, 2012). In this stage, the infants basically develops various learning skills which help them in doing activities like crawling, grasping, pushing, pulling as well as putting things in mouth (Lahey, 2001, p.251). The infants grasps about the world through these behaviors. Jean Piaget in his cognitive developmental theory stated that all the human beings passes through various thinking stages and the notion that children are intellectually inferior to the adults is not correct (Ahmad, 2008, p. 89). The children usually frame various mental models along with diverse mental rules for thinking at different stages of their development. He stated that these are programmed biologically in passing on to next stage at a certain age and he also added that good environment can make the infants cover up their stages in a faster manner i.e. if nurturing is done in a proper manner then the stages will pass in a rapid pace (Pastorino & Portillo, 2012, p.336). In the first case study, Marco is an eight months old infant and he is interested by the large basket of fun stuff which his grandmother has put together for his playing purpose. Marco carefully reaches to the basket with the help of his right hand and grasps a wooden spoon which he started immediately in banging on the side of the basket. After banging the spoon he leaves the spoon and with left hand reaches for a chunky beads string which he explores, drops and picks up again and puts it into the mouth. His behavior can be associated with Piaget’s observation and the crux of his cognitive developmental theory can be applied in this case. The child’s play in this sensorimotor stage is basically a learning process and they learn the world and learn about themselves through their physical senses and their play is focused on the things around them. Interactive environment with diverse things help them in learning in a faster manner. Piaget’s theory asserts that the children are basically active learners whose minds are installed with rich structure of knowledge. The children with direct with the environment find themselves in a learning mechanism. But limitations in the Piaget’s theory are that he underestimated the competencies of the infants. Empirically it have been found as stated earlier as well as that in a given task with scaling in difficulty levels these children are found to be representing much closer representations to that of the older child and adult than compared by Piaget. This limitation in his theory has been advanced in the present world through the wider application of adult teaching and training than discovery learning as proposed by Piaget. In this case granny’s help will help Marco to develop to wider extent in much smaller time (Laura, 2007, p.24). 7. Case-2 Personality Development One of the important extensions of ego psychology and of the social analysis of personality was the developmental theory put forwarded by Erik Erikson. According to Erikson, basic agenda of development is that of the formation of ego identity an integrated, unique, and autonomous sense of self (Bootzin & Arocella, 1984, p.42). The development of ego identity is generally the product of what Erikson called psychosocial development. Freud’s theory of personality is basically formed within the children within the age of 6 to 7. According to Erikson, personality development occurs through a series of various chronological stages. But Sigmund Freud’s conception of the three stages differs. Freud saw individual psyche in the near isolation (except for the influence of the parents and siblings) but Erikson saw the development of personality as deeply affected not only by the family but by the teachers, friends, spouses and many other social agents (Stockwell & Holtje, 1975, p.142). In this case, Maria and Helena are sisters. Maria is 9 years old and her sister is 7 years old. The opportunities received by both of them are similar from their parents. Their friends and teachers define that the elder sister Maria is average height blonde hair and she likes sports like swimming, gymnastics and s on with a jovial character. Helena differs from Maria in the sense that she is a bit taller for her age with brown hair and she has also few friends and also imparts a feeling of awkwardness with the adults. Although equal opportunities are provided to the siblings their cognitive characteristic is different. This may occur due to some reasons. First of all, it can be stated that biological disposition might make these children to act in an unusually fearful or unfamiliar manner which captures the essence of biological maturational theories (Theories of Development, 2012, p.57). Again, the age of 7 and 9 is the schooling age and both of them read in the middle school and in this stage of school, the children usually participate in the diverse activities and there generates involuntary comparison among parents associated with the traits of the siblings and their accomplishments. In case when the sibling’s age is in close proximity there arises more quarreling and antagonistic results. Although a flaw of Erikson’s observation can be encountered in this case. Erikson inferred that the older child receives greater pressure for behaving in a mature manner and the younger child are more popular with their age mates and they develop special negotiating and compromising capacities. In this case the trait is seen to be reverse. However the solution given by Erikson can be taken into account. In the theory of Erikson in industry versus inferiority, the psychological conflict gets resolved in a positive manner at times when experiences direct the children in developing sense of competence at useful skills and tasks (Emotional and emotional and social development in middle childhood, n.d.). 8. Case-3 impaired development- Sensorimotor stage Cassidy’s age is three years and she is very outgoing. Her thinking process and attitude is very loving but she has poor posture as well as awkward walking style. She has also spina bifida and physical development create impediments in executing activities like trying a tricycle. She also has problems in dressing which needs external help. She is creative but finds her comfort zone within the resources available within the nursery classes. In this case Piaget’s theory associated with disabilities can be referred to. Cassidy is in her sensorimotor stage and according to Piaget, development process during the sensorimotor is based on the active interaction with the environment through physical actions and sensory inputs. In infancy, the child with congenital disability with either a sensory loss or motor impairment, the motorsensory learning will be impaired. Spina bifida is a defect by birth. Majority of the children who suffers from this defect do not encounter severe problems from it. It generally occurs at times when the spine bones do not form in a proper manner around the part of the spinal cord and the skin on the back bones may be also affected. In severe cases, the defect may lead to walking deficiencies or executing daily activities in a proper manner (Spina Bifida - Topic Overview, 2012). Piaget has stated that children suffering from spina bifida are not capable of manipulating the environment physically. His postulates are applied in the modern science by the occupational theorists who apply various sensorimotor methods with the infants so that they are able to learn the way in which integration of sensory input with motor development can be attained (Smart, 2011, p.97). 9. Case-4 Give up tendencies within the girls Jane is a ten year girls and is also a user of Out of School Hours Activities. It can be seen that Jane showing interest in an adventure play area after finding big children left it. In needlework project shared by a group of mixed gender children turned down an invitation and in a football match she also turned down the invitation of playing by stating that football is for boys. A psychoanalytical view can be implemented in this case. Sigmund Freud emphasized on a psychosexual analysis in association with the giving up mentality or inferiority generation among the girls. Freud’s theory of penis envy states that the girls feel inferior as after birth the girls stresses psychologically on becoming a boy or man. According to Freud women realize that the lack of penis is not a personal punishment but it is mainly a universal trait. Freud also states that another physical consequence of the penis envy is that of jealousy among women. But another developmental theorist Kern Hornet has severely challenged Freud’s thinking which has stressed majorly on psychosexual analysis. Hornet stated that the penis envy is valid but the phenomenon is not universal. Horney introduces the significance of the society and culture as determining factors in the development of boys and girls (Navaro & Schwartzberg, 2007, p.1). Erikson asserted that social relationships are majorly crucial in determining personality rather than sexual urges. Erikson stresses more on the ego as compared to that of Freud. Erikson stated various developmental phases as for example in the first stage is the stage of trust and mistrust. Thus social interactions are needed to be developed in an optimal fashion for reducing the negative and inferior mentality among the women (Rathus, 2011, pp. 429-430). 10. Case-5 Deviant behavior –emergence of criminal psychology Craig is a fifteen year old boy and in his fifteen years of life he has been through a very rough phase with jeopardized family treatment. He got very little care from his mother and father and his uncle was associated petty criminal cases. Craig also made friends and engaged himself in gang culture and ultimately decided to leave studies and engage in downward spiral of minor criminal activities. Bowlby in 1951 suggested that if a child suffers from a prolonged period of maternal deprivation during the first 5 years of life then this would impose irreversible negative effects with the child becoming an affectionless character and also a delinquent. Brown and Wright in 2001 pointed out that early negligence of the parents in meeting the needs of the child result in an increase in insecure attachment and also an inability in exhibiting empathy. Theories like Differential Association theory, Differential Reinforcement Theory, Social Contract Theory, Strain theory and Code of Street are all related to the concept of criminality. Within the domain of Differential Association Theory, Sutherland stated that the criminal skills are developed through interactions between peers, families and friends engaged in these behaviors. One of the major variables is the training process which associates development of rewarding experiences about the criminal behaviors (Grandela, 2004, pp. 24-25). Social structure theories aims that criminal behavior is associated with social class. They state that crime is created through structure of society (Cole & Smith, 2007, pp. 54-55). 11. Case 6- Speech problem Tim started late talking and he had problems in word speaking. With time and guidance of language therapists he started to develop his language and speech. Within various motor systems, the development of motor skills is regarded as motor sequences of increased performance speed with reduced variability across token speed with increased anticipation across the sequence. These features have been demonstrated in a large number of studies of the children’s speech. These general properties are subjected to modification by various factors that develop during the process of development. As for instance, a pattern of increasing performance may be interrupted by the aspects of language learning. A phonetic sequence may also get slowly produced as it gets incorporated into early words. In certain phonetic sequences children may exhibit greater co articulation than adults (Caruso & Strand, 1999, p.60). One of the important perspectives on motor development is that of dynamic systems theory. This theory is applied to the problems in the development of the motor skills. In the process of explaining developmental issues in speech production, dynamic systems theory has been coupled with the motor gestures concept. Brownman and Goldstein in 1986 stated that gestures are basically abstract representations of the movement and have been proposed as the primitives in phonology based on articulation. In the speech development, production as well as perception is strongly associated. As the children learn speech they also start learning various movement sequences but it also learns the sensory consequences of the sequences. The sensory information may be applied in modifying the sequences which will contain same elements of movement (Caruso & Strand, 1999, p.68) References 1. 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