Physiological Principles for Health and Social Care - Essay Example

1.1 Systems of the human body, their functions and major organs The nervous system’s function is to direct the response of the human body to variations in both the external environment and its internal environment. Its major organs and functions include the spinal cord, brain and the nerves (Olsen, 2009). The cardiovascular system’s function is transport of fluid. The major organ is the heart. It is made up of four chambers that include two atria and two ventricles. The right and left side are separated by the septum. Inside it are several valves, the atrioventricular valves that consist of the tricuspid and biscuspid valves, the aaortic valve and the semi – lunar valves. (Olsen, 2009). The respiratory system’s function is to supply oxygen for cellular respiration and removes gaseous metabolic waste products. Its organs include the lungs, nose, the airways; trachea and bronchi. The lungs are located on the left and right side of the chest. They are covered by the pleura. The bronchi, from the trachea divide into bronchioles which divide into alveoli. It is in alveoli that gaseous exchange occurs (Olsen, 2009). The digestive system is involved with the conversion of food molecules into smaller micro -molecules which can be absorbed into the circulatory system. The major organs include the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, ileum and colon (Olsen, 2009). Urinary system’s function is to allow for the removal of metabolic waste, excess water and salts. Its organs include the kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra (Olsen, 2009). The reproductive system consists of both the male and female reproductive systems. Its function is reproduction. The organs of this system are testes, ductus, seminal vesicles, prostrate glands and penis in males while in females there is ovaries, uterus, oviducts, mammary glands and vagina (Olsen, 2009). The musculoskeletal system’s function is for support, protection and movement. It involves the skeletal and muscular systems. The organs of the skeletal system include bones and joints while those of the muscular system include muscles (Olsen, 2009). The endocrine system’s function is to regulate growth, metabolism, development and reproduction by hormone production and secretion. Its primary organs are the parathyroid, thyroid, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, testes, ovaries, pancreas and adrenal glands (Olsen, 2009). The immune system’s function is the provide defence against disease causing pathogens. Its major organs include the skin, white blood cells, lymph, lymph node and lymph vessels (Olsen, 2009). The integumentary system’s function is protection. Its major organ is the skin while nails, sebaceous glands, hair and sudoriferous glands make up the accessory organs. The skin is the largest body organ. It is made up of three layers, the epidermis, the dermis and the subcutaneous layer. The dermis is made up of hair follicles, sebaceous glands and sweat glands. The epidermis is made up of keratin, melanin and the horny layer. The subcutaneous layer is made up of fat and connective tissue (Olsen, 2009). 1.2 Interaction of the body systems The interaction of the human body systems is done through the nervous system. Each organs system has its own unique functions; however, the organ systems interact with each other. Looking at the digestive system, it provides the nutrients for energy and maintenance of other systems. These other systems in turn function towards ensuring that the digestive system functions in the right manner and is protected. For one, the circulatory system carries the nutrients and metabolic waste products from the digestive system. The respiratory system avails oxygen to the circulatory system which is transported to the digestive system for use by cells of the organs of the digestive system. The muscoskeletal system absorbs the nutrients and minerals which are used in growth of its tissues while it provides protection to the organs of the digestive system. The urinary system regulates the concentration of the absorbed compounds from the digestive system to ensure none exceeds the required amount in the body. The integumentary system protects the digestive system against injury and aids in the regulation of temperature required by digestive enzymes to function optimally. The lymphatic system transports excess fluids into the circulatory system while protecting the systems from infection. The endocrine system under the control of the nervous system secretes hormones that regulate the absorption of nutrients along with the secretion in other human organ systems. The nervous system controls the rate of digestion along with the functioning of other organ body systems. This way all the organ systems interact to ensure proper functioning and growth of the human body (Noyd, Krueger and Hill, 2013). The human body maintains a constant internal environment to ensure that these organ systems are all functioning at their optimum. This is achieved through homeostasis which is sustained through the negative feedback mechanism. There is also the positive feedback mechanism that is a stark contrast of the positive feedback mechanism. The negative feedback mechanism controls nearly all homeostatic mechanisms. It involves the change of a condition back to its norm. Taking an example is the variation of blood glucose levels. When blood glucose level rises, it is detected by receptors; the human body reacts to this through the release of insulin into the circulatory system by the pancreas which lowers the blood glucose levels back to the normal levels whereby insulin secretion stops. The positive feedback mechanism contrasts the negative feedback mechanism in that it does not cause the return of a variation to the norm, but it causes a further deviation from the norm. This can be showed during parturition. Oxytocin is produced during parturition causing labour. The intensification of labour results in secretion of more oxytocin, a cycle that continues until the birth of the child at which point oxytocin secretion halts (Chiras, 2011). 2.1 The Body’s Response to Physical Activities A case study is given of a 25 year old individual whose job involves door to door distribution of leaflets. The 25 year old is now preparing for a marathon run. The human body takes physical activity as a stimulus. In the short term, the human body responds and adapts in the long term. The cardiovascular system immediate responses include an increase in the heart rate. This is increase in the heart rate is usually directly proportional to the intensity of the physical activity. As for the 25 year old, the heart rate shall increase in accordance to the intensity of his practice for the marathon. This also applies to the stroke volume and the cardiac output. The stroke volume of the individual shall increase to around 110 – 130 ml/beat as he or she undertakes the physical exercise activity. The cardiac output of the individual which is a product of the stroke volume and heart rate will also increase proportionally as the two increases. During intense exercise, the cardiac output increase to around 20 – 40L/min. The blood flow of the individual shall be directed towards the skin to enhance loss of heat. The systolic blood pressure will increase during training and the concentration of the oxygen in the blood shown by a – vO2 shall increase (Kotecki, 2011). The respiratory system also responds to physical activity in its own unique way. The pulmonary ventilation of the individual shall increase as soon as he or she begins the training. As a result of the increase in pulmonary ventilation, the diffusion rate of the individual will increase in response to the increased pulmonary ventilation. Also, the vital capacity of the individual will increase to aid in expiration of the exhalation of the metabolic gaseous waste. As he or she trains, it will result in strengthening of the respiratory muscles as they begin doing more work than usual due to increased pulmonary ventilation (United States. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). The musculoskeletal system of the individual will also undergo change in response to the training. The individual’s lean body mass shall be increased while the fat will be reduced as a result of the training. The muscles of the individual will demand more oxygen and removal of metabolic waste products hence there shall be an increased blood flow to muscles. The musculoskeletal system provides special anatomical features that are affected by physical exercise. One is the skeletal muscles which are made up of two types of muscle fibres which are differentiated by their speed of their contraction. They are the slow twitch and the fast twitch. In the case of this individual, he or she shall gain in the slow – twitch fibres of the legs as a result of the practice in preparation for the marathon. Slow – twitch fibres are normally associated with marathon runners. Another special anatomical feature change that shall be experienced by the 25 year old is the increase in bone strength. This is supported by the mechanostat theory which states that the mechanical competence of bones is attained through homeostatic mechanisms which fine-tune the mass of the bone and structure to regulate the strains which are as a result of physical activity (Multani, 2008). 2.2 How Body Responses are explained by Cellular and Tissues Structure and Physiology The body responses to physical activity like the one undertaken by the 25 year old individual can be explained by changes in the cellular and tissue physiology and structure. If the physiology and structure of the organ systems affected has to change, then this change has to emanate from the cell level upwards to the whole organ system. The musculoskeletal system undergoes physiological and structural changes in order to adapt to the physical activities been undertaken. The cells making up the connective tissues of the musculoskeletal system sense stimuli due to physical exercise through the deformation of cells and as a result adaptive reactions are triggered. Its connective tissues are involved in locomotion during physical exercises. These tissues undergo a replacement of old tissue with new tissue as a result of physical exercise. The muscle cells and tissue respond to physical activity through hypertrophy. This means that they become larger as a result of the physical activity. The muscle cells are able to hold more mitochondria which are the chief source of energy in cells. The muscle cells are also able to store larger amounts of oxygen required in the chemical production of energy in mitochondria (Tipton, 2006). The physiological adaptations to exercise as shown by the changes that occur in the 25 year olds training exercise for the marathon are generated at the cellular and tissue levels of the cardiovascular system. The cardiovascular system is used to transport the large amounts of oxygen to muscle cells. At the cellular level, the cells that carry oxygen, the red blood cells adapt by increasing their oxygen carrying capacity. This is achieved by an increase in the haemoglobin concentration through splenic contraction. Splenic contraction is as a result of the anticipation of the physical exercise at hand and as the individual exercises. It increases the red blood cell mass without necessarily increasing the blood plasma volume. The increase in the concentration of haemoglobin increases the carrying capability of red blood cells from the respiratory system to the muscle cells during physical exercise (Hinchcliff, Kaneps & Geor, 2013). The erythrocytes also increase in number as a result of continuous physical exercise so as to ensure that the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is increased which shall increase the delivery of oxygen to muscle cells. Red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow where the hemocytoblasts give rise to new red blood cells. This process takes about two days which means that it would take the practising individual continuous physical exercise for the red blood cells to increase in number. Also, in adaptation to the needs of physical exercises, the heart increases in size. The heart is made up of the cardiac muscles which increase in size. This is through an increase in the number of cells that form the fibres. This increases the size of the fibres forming the cardiac muscles (Bokariya, 2008). 2.3 Description of how his Body will Co-ordinate its Internal Activities The response of the organ systems of the individual due to the physical exercises that he undertakes does not occur in isolation but they occur as one constituent of an intricate response to the physical exercise. At the beginning of the exercise by the 25 year old, a response is triggered by all a majority of organ systems to ensure that nutrients are available and the body temperature is regulated. Glucose is needed; it is derived from the glycogen in the muscle cells and glucose from the liver an organ of the digestive system. The endocrine system controls their supply through hormonal responses by reduction in blood insulin levels and increase in blood glucagon level. Hence, more glucose is delivered to the muscle cells for use during the physical exercise. The supplied glucose has to undergo oxidation during the physical exercise which needs the supply of oxygen. The cardiovascular and respiratory systems ensure that oxygen is delivered to the muscle cells through increase in pulmonary ventilation in the respiratory system, increase in the oxygen carrying capacity of the red blood cells and the blood. This ensures that enough oxygen is delivered to the muscle cells of the 25 year old during the physical exercise. Due to the metabolic production of waste products by the muscle cells, carbon (IV) oxide and lactate are produced aerobically and anaerobically respectively. These are transported by the circulatory system and undergo excretion through the excretory system. The muscles of the 25 year old generate heat as a result of physical exercise; this heat is transported by the circulatory system to the skin which is an organ of the integumentary system and to the respiractory tract a part of the repisratory system from where it is lost to the external environment (Hinchcliff, Kaneps & Geor, 2013). 3.1 Recording of the Routine Measures and their uses A case study is given of a 65 year old obese businessman with fever and flu like symptoms. Flu symptoms include fever, sneezing, loss of appetite, tiredness, headaches, dry, chesty coughs just to name but a few (McGee, 2012). The chest X – ray test is done if the businessman feels as if someone is sitting on his chest which causes difficulty in breathing. This test is undertaken so as to rule out fluid in the lungs or Pneumonia. The procedure involves the businessman standing in front of the x – ray machine while holding his breath. Then a beam of radiation is sent through his chest with the image been recorded in a film. This is illustrated in figure 1. Figure 1: Chest X- ray (McGee, 2012). The rapid influenza diagnostic test is used to check for viruses in nasal secretions. It is used to detect type A and B influenza. This test is best used within the first 48 hours of the start of the symptoms so as to aid diagnose the influenza and asses if or not antiviral drugs can be utilised. However, confirmation can be done using an RT – PCR test or a viral culture. The temperature rates of the businessman can be assed to determine if the symptoms are those of flu. Normal body temperature ranges at 36.50C. High temperatures range at 400C. High temperatures are common signs of flu as they are responses to virus infections and they last 2 – 3 days (McGee, 2012). Temperature checks are done using a clinical thermometer like the one shown in figure 2. Figure 1: Clinical thermometer (McGee, 2012). The temperature of the rectum, axilla, tympanic membrane, forehead or oral cavity can be taken using a thermometer. Chest computed tomography scan is another test that can be carried out on the businessman. It is used to show the shape, size of lungs and their positions. Its procedure involves the businessman lying on a table. The table is moved through the hole as an x – ray beam rotates around the body. Data is taken from the x – rays by a computer and a series of pictures of the inside of the chest is created. This picture series are termed as slides (McGee, 2012). This process is shown in figure 3. Figure 2: CT Scan process (McGee, 2012). 3.2 Analysis of the Information from the Routine Measures provided about the Body Functions of the Businessman The chest X - ray was done to determine if his case was more complex than as he had first explained. 10 posterior ribs were visible with 6 anterior ribs been visible. The thoracic vertebra was visible indicating good penetration of the X – ray. The diaphragm was analysed for tenting, free air, abnormal elevation and its margins. Then the lung fields were checked for signs of masses, infiltrates, air bronchograms and increased vascularity. The lungs were clear but there was airway congestion. This was the cause of the businessman’s complain that he felt as though someone was sitting on his chest (McGee, 2012). The rapid influenza diagnostic test availed the results in around fifteen minutes. The results were positive for influenza type A. This indicated the businessman had influenza virus infection. The checking of the temperature from the businessman gave a temperature reading of 400C. This indicated that the businessman had a fever. The CT scans of the businessman’s chest were undertaken with 1 breath hold. Using computer analysis of the obtained slides, the lungs were observed to be clear with no abnormal texture patterns. This meant that the chest of the businessman was clear ruling out pneumonia or lung related illnesses. The chest X- ray indicated that the influenza virus had already triggered a reaction from the immune system of the businessman. Hence, there was airway congestion as a result of secretion of mucus in the airways along with inflammatory reactions (McGee, 2012). 3.3 How the Information obtained about the Body functioning of the Businessman will inform Care planning for him The results were all positive for an influenza infection. Hence, this would mean that the businessman needed care planning based on this results. The first would be to begin antiviral treatment for the indicated influenza as was shown. Then, the fever needed to be put under control. Fevers lead to loss of body fluids due to the high temperature. The businessman was advised to drink plenty of warm water. Then the businessman was placed on drug medication to control it. The businessman was also advised to take warm baths. The airway congestion shown by the businessman would be treated through administration of oral decongestants. The patient was also advised to change and use clean nasal towels while avoiding dusty areas (McGee, 2012). 4.1 Effect of age on the body structure and functioning As age increases, the integumentary system is affected through the reduction in the production of new skin cells decreases. The vascularisation to the skin reduces, if injured; the healing process is slowed as a result. Her hair colour diminishes along with increased hair loss. The glands that produce oil sweat become more and more dysfunctional. These glands are the sebaceous and sudoriferus glands respectively. As the functioning of her body decreases, physical changes occur. Her body becomes highly sensitive to temperature. The elasticity of her skin decreases (Simmers, 2008). Aging also affects the respiratory system. The respiratory muscles of the woman become weak. Rigidity of the rib cage increases. The bronchioles become less elastic as do the alveoli (Simmers, 2008). The nervous system is affected by aging too. The most significant effect of aging in the nervous system is the death of brain cells. The woman also experiences reduced blood flow to the brain. The sensitivity of the nerve endings of the woman is reduced due to aging. As a result of the physical changes, the old woman experiences memory lapses with her short term memory been affected. Her aging will affect her vision with night and peripheral vision been reduced. She may also develop cataracts or glaucoma which also impairs her vision. The old woman experiences hearing loss due to aging (Simmers, 2008). 4.2 The impacts of the mentioned conditions on her body Aging effects on the integumentary system of the old woman impacts her body in certain ways which are very much evident on close observation. Due to these effects as described before, the structure of the skin is greatly impacted. However, aging impacts on the layers of the skin by degrading their structures. Hence, their proper functioning are impacted, these results in a decrease in the sensory, protective and thermoregulatory skin functions. The dermis thickens while the epidermis becomes more and more thinner, these impacts on the ability of the skin to offer protective function against harmful UV rays. The quality of the skin is impacted through dryness, tearing and cracking. The production of vitamin D is also impacted hence increasing the woman’s risk to bone related conditions (Foster & Prevost, 2012). The age related conditions on the respiratory system of the woman also impact her body negatively. The changes to the airways, alveoli and the chest wall all have certain impacts on her body. In regard to the chest wall, her costal cartilage is impacted upon through ossification of her ribs and costal cartilage. These impacts of the compliance of the chest wall to changes in pulmonary ventilation. She also experiences stiffness in the chest area. The other impact on her body is the increase in the anteroposterior diameter of the chest wall. This increase in diameter contributes to decrease in elastic recoil. The diaphragm and intercostals muscles are impacted upon through a decrease in their muscular strength. Her body’s ability to fight off pulmonary infections is impacted upon due to a reduction in the epithelial tissues that fight these infections. The airways of her body are impacted upon through a decrease in the elastin and collagen which is used to support them. This increases the prevalence of pulmonary tract infections and reduces the efficacy of her respiratory system. Aging effects on her nervous system impacts her body in various ways that include neuron dysfunction and neuron death. It also results in synaptic plasticity and neurogenesis. Her body’s ability to initiate and coordinate movement normally is impacted upon. The effects also impact on her body through the increase in neurodegenerative diseases such as parkinson’s and alzheimer’s disease (Foster & Prevost, 2012). 4.3 The effects of her medical conditions on the care and support provided to her in the care home Arthritis of the knees will have several effects on the care and support that she is provided with in the care home. Arthritis is a major cause for disability in elder persons such as the case of this woman. It results in the decrease in the capability of the woman to walk, climb stairs, and lift items. This affects the care and support provided to her by ensuring that the home care ensures that all barriers which may hinder her walking around the home care. Also, stairs will have to be done away with or ramps erected to facilitate movement. The arthritis decreases her functional capability hence the home care has to ensure all day surveillance along with someone to help her. Because arthritis is painful, the home care has to ensure that it avails pain reducing medications for her (Berkman, Rehr & Fizdale, 2006). Type 2 diabetes affects the care and support she receives at the home care due to diabetes related complications. It causes an increase in the frequency of conditions such as stroke, cardiovascular conditions and renal conditions and amputations. Hence, home care ensures that health professional is ever present due to the prevalence of these conditions which are life threatening. It also ensures that the right medications are available and the diet that the old woman consumes is closely monitored to ensure it does not trigger diabetic related complications. Essential hypertension complicates the care and support that the old woman receives as more and intense care and support is required. This affects the home care provided as more expertise and knowledge is required to ensure that in case she develops hypertension related complications, they can be easily treated. All in all, the medical complications that she has require home care to be a multidimensional unit that does not only look after her, but one that also provides the necessary medical attention required. The Continuing Care Act 1990 introduced the pre – admission assessment to assess persons been admitted to home care so as to know the interventions needed for each elderly person (Sinclair, A., et al., 2010). Bibliography Berkman, B., Rehr H. & Fizdale, R., 2006. Handbook of Social Work in Health and Aging. Oxford University Press. Bokariya, P., 2008. Histology for Dental Students with Clinical Aspects. Jaypee Brothers Publishers. Chiras, D. D., 2011. Human Body Systems. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. Foster, J. G. & Prevost, S. E., 2012. Advanced Practice Nursing of Adults in Acute Care. F. A. Davis. Simmers, L., 2008. Diversified Health Occupations. Cengage Learning. Hinchcliff, K. W., Kaneps, A. J. & Geor, R. J., 2013. Equine Sports Medicine and Surgery. Elsevier Health Sciences. Kotecki, J. E., 2011. Physical Activity & Health: An Interactive Approach. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. McGee, S. R., 2012. Evidence-based Physical Diagnosis. Elsevier Health Sciences. Multani., 2008. Principles of Geriatric Physiotherapy. Jaypee Brothers Publishers. Noyd, R., Krueger, J. & Hill, K., 2013. Biology: Organisms and Adaptations. Cengage Learning. Olsen, B. D., 2009. Understanding Human Anatomy Through Evolution - Second Edition. Lulu.com. Sinclair, A., et al., 2010. Good Clinical practice guidelines for care home residents with diabetes. [pdf] Diabetes UK. Available at: http://www.diabetes.org.uk/Documents/About%20Us/Our%20views/Care%20recs/Care-homes-0110.pdf [Accessed 1 April 2014]. Tipton, C. M., 2006. ACSM's Advanced Exercise Physiology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. United States. Department of Health and Human Services., 1996. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. DIANE Publishing. Read More