Clinical Trials Psychology - Assignment Example

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY INTRUCTOR Part Depression What causes depression? Depression is a medical illness that brings about a constant feeling of sorrow and lack of interest. It often leads to physical and emotional problems. No single cause has been identified; however, several factors are believed to be involved. Such factors include: Past sexual, emotional or physical abuses may cause depression later in one’s life. Certain medications (drugs) such as Accutane, corticosteroids and the antiviral drug interferon-alpha may increase ones risk of depression. Substance abuse. More than 30 percent of individuals with substance abuse problems have clinical depression as well. Serious illness. Death or loss. Risk of depression is increased by grief due to death of a loved one. Conflict. Personal disputes or conflicts with friends and family members may cause depression. Genetics. Depression may be inherited across generations. Other personal problems and major events. Problems like losing a job, getting divorced, being cast out of family and social isolation as a result of mental illness can lead to depression. Effective treatments for depression The main treatment methods are antidepressant therapy and psychotherapy. Antidepressant stabilizes the neurotransmitters in the brain thus regulating the mood. Examples of antidepressants are norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Life changes can also be an essential and effective part of depression treatment. Such life changes include regular exercise, eating well-balance meals, enough sleep, strong social networks and stress reduction. Group therapy can also be very effective in treating depression. Listening to peers who undergo through similar tussles can validate one’s experiences and aid build self-esteem. Other alternative and complementary methods such as relaxation techniques such as yoga, mindfulness meditation or tai chi; acupuncture, vitamin and herbal supplements may also help treat depression. Part 2: Schizophrenia What causes schizophrenia? Schizophrenia is a brain disorder that has an effect on the manner in which an individual acts, thinks and sees the world. No single cause has been identified; however, several factors are believed to be involved. Such factors include: a) Genetic factors A predisposition to the disorder can run in families. People with relatives who have the disorder have more chance of acquiring it than those whose relatives do not have it. In the general population, just one percent of individuals develop schizophrenia over their lifetime. However, children who their parents have it, have 10 percent chance of developing it. b) Biochemical factors Chemical imbalance in the neurotransmitter called dopamine is believed to cause schizophrenia. This imbalance may be caused by an individual’s genetic predisposition to the illness. Complications during birth or pregnancy that bring about structural damage to the brain are also believed to be involved. c) Stress Stressful incidents act as precipitating events especially in vulnerable people. d) Alcohol and other drug uses Drug and alcohol use trigger psychosis in vulnerable individuals. What treatments are effective for schizophrenia? The most effective treatment method for the disorder is antipsychotic medicines. Such medicines change the brain’s chemical balance and help control symptoms. Psychotherapy can as well be used as an adjunct to the medication plan as well as a strong support network in order to make the individual lead fulfilling lives and gain greater independence. Part 3: Anxiety What are the main anxiety disorders? i) Generalized anxiety disorder People with such anxiety disorder are uncontrollable. They are excessively and unrealistically worried about everyday things. ii) Panic disorder People with this disorder often experience severe panic attacks in circumstances where most individuals would not be afraid. iii) Agoraphobia People with this disorder fear going out in public and crowded places especially those places that are unfamiliar to them. iv) Social phobia Such people have intense and persistent fear of performance or social situations. v) Specific phobia Such people have a strong fear about particular situations or objects that interfere with their life. vi) Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) People with this disorder experience constant unwanted thought. They exhibit fear and behaviors that are confusing to those around them. vii) Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) This disorder comes after a traumatic event has happened. Such people repeatedly relive such events through distressful, intrusive recollections, such as flashbacks or nightmares. What treatments are effective for anxiety disorders? Anxiety disorders can be treated effectively through a combination of antidepressant and cognitive and behavioral therapy. In addition, it can be treated by counseling, understanding the cause of symptoms, anxiety management courses, and medications such as benzodiazepines, buspirone and beta-blocker medicines. Part 4: Childhood disorders What are some of the main causes of ADHD, conduct disorder (CD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)? a) Main causes of ADHD ADHD makes it hard for individuals to pay attention or control their behavior. It is caused by lack of sufficient neurotransmitters, a substance that enables the brain to organize and direct behavior and thought. It is also caused by heredity, premature birth, low birth weight, brain damage. It also develops in children who their mothers are exposed to toxic lead, smoke, misuse drugs and drink alcohol while pregnant. Effective treatments for ADHD Treatments include psychoeducation, specific medications, social skills training, individual psychotherapy and special supervision at school. b) Main causes of conduct disorder (CD) CD is a set of ongoing behavioral and emotional problems that occurs in teens and children. Such problems may involve impulsive or defiant behavior, criminal activity or drug use. Causes The disorder has been linked to: • Poverty • Family conflicts • Child abuse • Alcohol or drug abuse in the parents • Genetic defects Effective treatments of CD Children should be taken away from such abusive homes and put in less chaotic ones. Talk therapy or behavioral modification therapy may also be used to teach a child to adapt to feelings. For attention-deficient disorder and depression, specific modifications may be used. c) Main causes of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) ODD is a behavior disorder diagnosed in childhood. It is characterized by defiant, uncooperative, irritable, negativistic, and annoying behavior towards peers, teachers, parents, and other authority figures. Causes There is no clear cause of the disorder; however, contributing causes can be a combination of environmental and inherited factors. It is also caused by negative reinforcement techniques that are used by parents, abuse or neglect, lack of supervision, inconsistent or harsh discipline, imbalance in serotonin, and development delays in the ability of the child to process feelings and thoughts. Treatments of ODD may include i) Parental training to better manage and interact with their children ii) Individual psychotherapy to improve communication skills, problem-solving skills, anger management and impulse control skills. iii) Peer group therapy to help develop interpersonal and social skills iv) Functional family therapy to help improve family interactions and communication skills. v) Consistency of care from all the carers of the child. Part 5: Personality disorders What are the main personality disorders? a) Paranoid personality disorder People with such disorder are unforgiving, have explosive tempers and are constantly threatened by others’ actions. b) Schizoid personality disorder People with such disorder are withdrawn and distant, fearful of close relationships and have restricted the range of emotion or thoughts in interpersonal setting. c) Schizotypal personality disorder People with such disorder are socially anxious, may talk to themselves, hold strange beliefs and may be eccentric in their clothing or manners. d) Histrionic personality disorder People with such disorder exhibit a pattern of excessive attention seeking. e) Narcissistic personality disorder People with such disorder constantly seek attention, lack empathy and imagine unrealistic personal successes. f) Antisocial personality disorder People with such disorder do not obey rules, disregards other’s feelings. They are also aggressive and violent. g) Avoidant personality disorder People with such disorder tend to exhibit extreme shyness. They fear rejection, feel inadequate, avoid relationships outside their family and are hypersensitive to negative evaluation. Dependant personality disorder Such people are extremely afraid of being alone. They have submissive and clinging behavior as they have too much need to be paid attention to. They also fear separation. h) Obsessive-convulsive personality disorder People with such disorder are preoccupied with perfectionism, orderliness, interpersonal and mental control. They are inflexible and have difficulty adapting to change. Name some treatments are effective for certain personality disorders Effective treatments for personality disorders usually include a combination of psychosocial therapy and prescription medication. Prescription medications include antianxiety or antidepressants drugs. Treatment for specific disorders Disorders Treatment Schizotypal personality disorder Individual counseling and antipsychotic drugs Borderline personality disorder General psychiatric management, dialectical behavior therapy and drug therapy Narcissistic personality disorder Individual psychotherapy and therapist who emphasize empathy Avoidant personality disorder Individual and group therapy Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder Individual psychotherapy aimed at making the person accept their world and tolerates uncertainty. Part 6: Models of abnormal behavior List the main models of abnormal behavior. Name one major achievement of each model. 1) Biological (medical) model Medical model assumes that abnormal behaviors are caused by biological factors, particularly those that involve the brain and genetic material. This model is very vital in treating mental disorders. 2) Behavioral model This model assumes that maladaptive behaviors are acquired through one’s environment. This model uses aversion therapy and systematic desensitization to solve psychological illness. Aversion therapy is where a stimulus that provokes a dysfunctional behavior is combined with a second one in order to produce a new reaction to the first one based on the second’s experiences. This model is very crucial in treating certain disorders. 3) Cognitive model This model assumes that people’s thoughts modify their behavior and emotional states. This model induces external behavioral change by influencing the patient’s feelings and emotions to change. It teaches patients to think differently. The main achievement of the model is that it has helped treat compulsive disorders and phobias 4) Psychodynamic model It assumes that a person’s psychological illnesses are as a result of repressed thoughts and emotions from past experience (particularly childhood experiences). This repression, therefore, results to alternative behavior that replaces the one being repressed. This model brings free association thus allowing the repressed person to feel more comfortable to speak freely. It eliminates abnormal disorder by the use of psychoanalysis (airing and understanding of unconscious conflicts by the patient) Part 7: Psychotherapy effectiveness How effective is psychotherapy? Although it is underutilized, psychotherapy is very effective. According to a research review that was conducted by American Psychological Association, psychotherapy produces long-term health improvements and helps reduce the overall need for health services. Science has shown that with an effective therapist, psychotherapy is more enduring than medication since it teaches the patient life skills that last beyond the course of treatment. It leads to fewer relapses of mild to moderate depression and anxiety that medication use alone. The resolutions that were adopted by the Associations Council of Representatives points out that the psychotherapy is very effective for a variety of behavioral and mental issues. Psychotherapy reduces mortality, morbidity and disability. It decreases psychiatric hospitalization and improve work functioning. Unlike psychopharmacological treatments, psychotherapy rarely produces harmful side effects Main factors that account for the effectiveness of psychotherapy The following factors determines the effectiveness of psychotherapy a) Therapeutic alliance This is the extent to which the therapist and client work purposefully, collaboratively and connect emotionally. A close therapeutic alliance is a very crucial component to effective psychotherapy because it helps in building understanding, trust and belief in each other. b) Experience of the therapist Therapists who have a sophisticated set of interpersonal skills, have undergone professional development through training and have a high level of experience tends to be aware of the characteristics of their clients. They are, therefore, able to develop good working alliance. c) Client motivation/personality Clients’ ability to form a relationship as well as their motivation level impacts the outcomes of the therapy. Clients who are open and able to establish good working relationship with the therapist achieve favorable outcomes. Part 8: Positive psychology Main causes of happiness Happiness is an affective or emotional state that can be personal or shared with other people. Different people have different definitions of happiness. The main causes of happiness are: a) Being successful Successful lives normally lead to happiness. This is because being successful makes a person to feel accomplished. Also, it makes a person have good relationships with others, particularly friends. b) Being optimistic A person who is optimistic tends to be happy because they have confidence and hopefulness that things will obviously work out. Being optimistic helps one to move from the past and not fear the future. c) Being close to friends and family Good and close relationships with family and friends have a far greater impact on ones happiness than jobs because it creates a sense of belonging. d) The state of being Being accepted and loved for who one really is by a significant other is the major cause of happiness. One also needs to love and accept themselves unconditionally so as to have high self-esteem. Effects of happiness Firstly, happiness brings good health. It brings positive emotions thus protecting a person from developing heart illnesses. Also, happiness helps depressed people to get out of their situation. Further, happiness prevents arteries from hardening thus preventing arteries diseases. Secondly, happiness makes a person feel satisfied. Happy people tend to help other people as thanks to God for their happiness hence being fulfilled. Thirdly, happiness makes people be attracted to you. People are usually engrossed to those who are always happy. Happiness, therefore, helps a person to make new friends. Read More