Development and Impairment of the Prefrontal Cortex in Young Adulthood - Essay Example

RUNNING HEAD: Psychology Development and/or Impairment of the Prefrontal Cortex in Young Adulthood Client Inserts His/her Name Client Inserts Name of Institution Abstract Prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in various cognitive functions including reasoning and planning but very little in understood on how such mechanisms develop in young childhood. This essay will examine the development of prefrontal cortex in childhood and the changes in the structural architecture, cognitive abilities and neural activities. During childhood, the prefrontal cortex undergoes a series of maturation like reduction in neural and synaptic density, an increased white volume matter and dendrites growth which is necessary for neural network formation that is essential for complex cognitive processing. The behavioural performance in childhood improves with age. At 4 years old, the prefrontal cortex is already functioning and is organized into focal systems that are fine-tuned through developments in later ages. The essay is also going to examine the implications for risky behaviour and the link between prefrontal cortex development and / or impairment in young adulthood and engaging in risky behaviours. Introduction Prefrontal cortex is the front section of the brain’s frontal lobes that lies in front of the premotor and motor areas. The brain is associated with the complex planning function, expression of personality, decision making, and the moderation of social behaviour. The major function of this region of the brain is orchestration of actions and thoughts according to the internal goals. The term executive function is used to explain the functions performed by the prefrontal cortex which relates to the capabilities of differentiating conflicting thoughts, the ability to differentiate good from the bad, different and same. It also relates to working towards a given goal or objective, expectations based on actions and present actions’ future consequences and controlling social actions. Many studies reveal that there is a significant link between the functions of prefrontal cortex and an individual’s personality (DeYoung et al., 2010). It was not until recently that everyone believed that the development of brain stopped at the age a child went to school. This is around six years of age. Contrary to this belief, the development of prefrontal cortex is never complete until early adulthood (Anderson et al., 2001). The brain becomes concrete as the grey matter continues to thicken until the adolescence stage that is normally 11-12 years, in which the brain starts a thinning process where elimination of unused neural connections takes place. This thinning process goes on until early adulthood resulting in increased speed and enhanced processing of information (Arnett, 2000). Synapses that are linked to the redundant skills and connections that are untapped start being discarded or pruned during the process of thinning. This is the principle of “using or losing it” formulated by (Botvin & Griffin, 2004). The pruning of synapses gives rise to enhanced functioning of specific regions of the brain that have been optimally utilized in order to maintain a high level of cognitive control of behaviour Furthermore, teenage brain maturation is associated with myelination (established neural connections’ insulation) that functions to optimize the transfer of neural information across the central nervous system (Casey, Giedd & Thomas, 2000). Increased myelination leads to increased speed response of effective integration of neural circuitry that in necessary in modelling behaviour. Teenage maturation of structural brain has significant implications for their development because various advancements have been identified in various cognitive processes like decision making, problem solving, and control of impulse (Ernst et al., 2003). Therefore, teenage brain maturation may enhance the acquisition of complex cognitive and continuous understanding of their surroundings. Young adulthood, which is also a teenage speed in the age bracket of 18-25 years is a transitional development period where various changes taken place in the young adult’s life concomitantly. These changes include drive for independence, physical maturation, brain development and increases salience of interactions socially and with peers. This period is also characterized by indulgence in risky behaviours including alcohol and drugs, unprotected sex and criminal activities. Clearly understanding the neural role of these risky behaviours is vital in identifying which category of individuals in this bracket is at risk for bad outcomes, for example dependence on substances and abuse (Willis, 2010). The ability to resist temptations is a form of cognitive control. The risky behaviours of young adults are the core to this control. Although individuals differ in this ability, studies have asserted that there are development windows when an individual is especially susceptible to temptations. Development studies have suggested a constant improvement of cognitive capacity of control from infancy to adulthood. This is evidenced by behaviours different sets of individuals in specified age brackets portray (Collins, 2001). This implies that development trajectories in control of cognitive behaviours are complex and can be altered by reinforcing or emotionally charged contexts. For example, sexual and social interactions whereby demands of cognitive control interact with motivational processes or drive (Arnett, 2000). There have been various hypothesis put forward as to why young adults may engage in risky and impulsive behaviours. Traditional account for young adults suggests that it is a period associated with increased efficiency in cognitive control capabilities. This is dependent on maturation of the prefrontal cortex which is evidenced by imaging and post-mortem analysis that shows continuous functional and structural development while in young adults’ stage (Cooke, Forth & Hare, 1998). Young adult’s neurological development especially executive cognitive functioning plays a vital role in influencing their risky behaviour through the creation of imbalance in the harm ad reward avoidance systems. Executive cognitive functioning serves as a system for regulating systems that balances predicted rewards and the avoidance of dangerous outcomes (Botvin & Griffin, 2004) When there is an immature executive cognitive function, there is usually an imbalance between the reward system, that involves the ventral striatum, and the system of harm avoidance, which involves the amygdale. This is clearly demonstrated in the way young adults are highly sensitive to rewards, highly susceptible to substance use, increased rates of substance use, and the underestimation of substance use consequences (Anderson, 2001). There is a high correlation between immature prefrontal cortex and response inhibition difficulties. This is defined in the way an individual selects which stimuli and ideas to attend to in controlling their behaviour, and also the capacity to hold back responses in the direction of competing ideas or behaviours that might result in bad consequences (Casey, Giedd & Thomas, 2000) Studies suggest that there is an age-related increase in prefrontal functioning and a rapid decrease in age-related errors regarding poor response inhibitions. These studies assert that the youths do not develop the capability of inhibiting responses in a constant manner until they are fully adults (Ernst et al., 2003). As seen earlier, inadequate response inhibition and a common preference in the direction of risk taking may multiply the impact of incomplete development of the neural system in young adults’ decision making capabilities. This may also place them at a disadvantaged position when faced with the challenge of substance usage. In the process of decision making, the brain has to process and integrate different internal states and the surrounding before coming up with the final decision (Hamilton, 2005). When the use of multiple situations that involves substance use, one has to think about multiple objectives and the behaviours developed to meet the specified objectives. These factors are likely to be attributed to the incomplete neurological development on some young adults’ risky behaviours (Baumrind & Moselle, 1995). Further studies reveal that the young adults do not have the intentions of pursuing health risks, but are open to the risky behaviours when such opportunities presents itself to them. Therefore, those who use substances are likely to use them even when they know the risks associated with the substances. Furthermore, the willingness to use substances is most prevalent in areas that got high risks in substance usage (Casey, Giedd & Thomas, 2000). Research reveals that biology for instance, genetics and context correlate to affect both psychopathology like substance usage and neurological development like decision making. Context does influence the process of neurological development in a variety of ways. For instance maternal use of substances and stress exposure during pregnancy, childhood and adolescence stress exposure. These previous experiences can affect young adults. Another way is prenatal and postnatal exposure to drugs and stressful events like trauma, parental divorce etc, which may influence neurological development negatively resulting in functional and structural brain changes (Botvin & Griffin, 2004). According to Willis (2010), stressful events during adolescence or childhood, increases the risk of young adults substance use. This is possible as it alters the cognitive, social, and affective processes that are involved in behaviour. Furthermore, due to the fact that cognitive development is still taking place in young adults, the upsetting effects of stress on neurological development can be linked to long lasting impairments (Fuster, 2007). Chronic stress exposure has been proved to be associated with changes in neurological development, which in turn is associated with reduced volumes of hippocampus and impaired memory and the process of decision making. Early indulgence of risky behaviour is a prediction of indulgence in the future. High are the chances that the young adults who find themselves in the ix of indulging in risky behaviours like substance abuse of sexual relations started in their adolescent life. These substance abuse influences the transmission of mesolimbic dopamine with neurons acute activations in frontolimbic circuitry that is rich in dopamine. Anderson et al., (2001), suggests that drug abuse hijacks the system that is associated with drug incentives, like the ventral striatum, thereby down regulating the top-down regions of prefrontal control. Fuster (2007), has shown that young adults compared with adolescents are more sensitive to the social, sedation, hangover effects, and acute withdrawal of drug use. Most risky behaviours usually take place in social functions thus pushing the young adults who are socially active towards greater chances of drug and substance use when the behaviour is seen as a value by their peers. Whereas young adults might seem less sensitive to a couple of behavioural effects of drugs, they seem to be more sensitive to the neurotoxin effects in them (Ernst et al., 2003). Data captured from brain imaging studies have provided steady evidence in human beings of neurotoxic effects of drugs in the brain. There is altered brain functioning and structure in drugs –dependents or abusing young adults compared to healthy persons. The studies have also ruled that there is positive correlation between the age of first use and the hippocampal volume, implying that early adulthood or adolescent behaviours may be a period of heightened alcohol’s neurotic effects risks. High risk population studies suggest that frontal functioning impairments are evident before exposure to drug use and therefore can predict use of substance abuse later in life. Contrary, in a behavioural study in 8-15 years old boys of high and low familial risks, the major significant finding was minimal if any behavioural change or challenges on intoxication tests- even after certain doses that were intoxicating in an adult population were observed. An increased sensitivity and neurotoxic effects on the motivational effects of alcohol and suggestion of poorer prefrontal control evident even before exposure to drugs may develop a lasting or long term course of drug use beyond adolescents, young adulthood and finally in adulthood (Arnett, 2000). These studies imply that young adults’ brain development is characterized by tension between early development of systems that portray exaggerated reactions to motivational stimuli and then later maturing to cognitive control regions. This system is linked to seeking sensation and engaging in risky behaviour, slowly loses its competitive edge with the continuous development of the cognitive control system. These imbalances between the two developing systems during the young adults’ life may enhance heightened exposure to behaviours of risk-taking and increase the susceptibility of motivational characteristics of drugs. In prefrontal cortex regions that regulate behaviours, there is a linear development pattern that is similar to those that are seen in the impulsivity behavioural. Furthermore, clinical disorders which have problems of impulsive control have shown minimal prefrontal activities, thus linking the impulsivity phenotypic construct and neurobiological substrates further. The existing tension between prefrontal cortex regions and sub cortical regions during this period of young adulthood acts as a mechanism for the observed increase in risk taking that includes the use of drugs. Most of the young adults have tried using drugs before but this does not mean it will lead to abuse automatically. Those with prior exposure to drugs may be particularly susceptible to drug abuse showing impairments in frontal functioning and structures (Ernst et al., 2003). Neurobiological context model, these individuals would have a greater imbalance between the cortical and the -sub cortical control. These finding are also in line with the clinical findings which suggest that there is a decrease in prefrontal activities and are more likely to have substance use disorder as compared to with the healthy controls (Anderson et al., 2001). Conclusion Although young adults are prone to engage in risky behaviours as a result of prefrontal cortex development, some will be more prone than others. This is because there are contextual factors that affect the neurological development and decision making like biological factors, maternal contexts, prenatal and postnatal exposure and stress levels. Decision making for young adults who have had stress or have been exposed to stress may be a difficult task to do, and they are less suited for interventions that are child-centred than those young adults who have never experienced traumatic or stressful situations. The essay has given insight to young adults risky behaviours by contributing knowledge on how such decisions are met. The neurological development process plays a vital role in the decision making capacity of and individual given his/her age bracket. References Anderson, P., Anderson, V., & Gartner, F. (2001). Assessment and development of organizational ability: The Rey Complex Figure Organizational Strategy Score (RCFOSS). Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15, 81-94. Arnett , J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469-480. Baumrind, D., & Moselle, A. (1995). A developmental perspective on adolescent drug abuse. Advances in Alcohol and Substance Abuse, 4, 41-67. Botvin, J., & Griffin, W. (2004). Life Skills Training: Empirical findings and future directions. Journal of Primary Prevention, 25, 211-232 Casey, J., Giedd, N., & Thomas, M. (2000). Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development. Biological Psychology, 54, 241-257. Collins, M.L. (2001). Handbook of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. Cambridge: MIT Press. Cooke, D.J., Forth, A.E., & Hare, R.D. (1998). Psychopathy: Theory, Research, and Implications for Society. New York: Springer. DeYoung , G., Hirsh, B., Shane, S., Papademetris, X., Rajeevan, N., Gray J. R. (2010). Testing predictions from personality neuroscience. Psychological Science 21 (6): 820– 828. Ernst, M., Grant, J., London, D., Contoreggi, S., Kimes, S., & Spurgeon, L. (2003). Decision making in adolescents with behavior disorders and adults with substance abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 33-42. Fuster, M. (2007). The prefrontal cortex. New York: Raven Press Hamilton, D.L. (2005). Social Cognition: Key Readings. New York: Psychology Press. Willis, L. (2010). The Handbook of Life Span Development, Cognition, Biology, and Methods. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Read More

It was not until recently that everyone believed that the development of brain stopped at the age a child went to school. This is around six years of age. Contrary to this belief, the development of prefrontal cortex is never complete until early adulthood (Anderson et al., 2001). The brain becomes concrete as the grey matter continues to thicken until the adolescence stage that is normally 11-12 years, in which the brain starts a thinning process where elimination of unused neural connections takes place.

This thinning process goes on until early adulthood resulting in increased speed and enhanced processing of information (Arnett, 2000). Synapses that are linked to the redundant skills and connections that are untapped start being discarded or pruned during the process of thinning. This is the principle of “using or losing it” formulated by (Botvin & Griffin, 2004). The pruning of synapses gives rise to enhanced functioning of specific regions of the brain that have been optimally utilized in order to maintain a high level of cognitive control of behaviour Furthermore, teenage brain maturation is associated with myelination (established neural connections’ insulation) that functions to optimize the transfer of neural information across the central nervous system (Casey, Giedd & Thomas, 2000).

Increased myelination leads to increased speed response of effective integration of neural circuitry that in necessary in modelling behaviour. Teenage maturation of structural brain has significant implications for their development because various advancements have been identified in various cognitive processes like decision making, problem solving, and control of impulse (Ernst et al., 2003). Therefore, teenage brain maturation may enhance the acquisition of complex cognitive and continuous understanding of their surroundings.

Young adulthood, which is also a teenage speed in the age bracket of 18-25 years is a transitional development period where various changes taken place in the young adult’s life concomitantly. These changes include drive for independence, physical maturation, brain development and increases salience of interactions socially and with peers. This period is also characterized by indulgence in risky behaviours including alcohol and drugs, unprotected sex and criminal activities. Clearly understanding the neural role of these risky behaviours is vital in identifying which category of individuals in this bracket is at risk for bad outcomes, for example dependence on substances and abuse (Willis, 2010).

The ability to resist temptations is a form of cognitive control. The risky behaviours of young adults are the core to this control. Although individuals differ in this ability, studies have asserted that there are development windows when an individual is especially susceptible to temptations. Development studies have suggested a constant improvement of cognitive capacity of control from infancy to adulthood. This is evidenced by behaviours different sets of individuals in specified age brackets portray (Collins, 2001).

This implies that development trajectories in control of cognitive behaviours are complex and can be altered by reinforcing or emotionally charged contexts. For example, sexual and social interactions whereby demands of cognitive control interact with motivational processes or drive (Arnett, 2000). There have been various hypothesis put forward as to why young adults may engage in risky and impulsive behaviours. Traditional account for young adults suggests that it is a period associated with increased efficiency in cognitive control capabilities.

This is dependent on maturation of the prefrontal cortex which is evidenced by imaging and post-mortem analysis that shows continuous functional and structural development while in young adults’ stage (Cooke, Forth & Hare, 1998). Young adult’s neurological development especially executive cognitive functioning plays a vital role in influencing their risky behaviour through the creation of imbalance in the harm ad reward avoidance systems.

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