The Intertestamental Period - Assignment Example

The Intertestamental Period Introduction There is a span of about 400 years, between the writing of the prophet Malachi in the Old Testament to the coming of Jesus Christ the New Testament, where the Bible is silent. The fact that events during this period were not explicitly recorded in the Bible does not detract from their importance. Within this time, there had been historical records in the form of extra-biblical literature, such as the scrolls discovered at Qumran, that described the developments that led to and impacted greatly on the religious thought, culture and governance, and events of the first century. Alexander the Great In the year 356 B.C., Alexander the Great was born to the Macedonian royal lineage. He was trained under the tutelage of Aristotle, by whom he was profoundly influenced not only in philosophical but also in political thought. Alexander ascended to the throne of Macedonia after his father was assassinated in 336 B.C. From 334-331 B.C. Alexander led his army to the east, conquering the Persian empire and promoting Greek culture (known as Hellenism) wherever he triumphed. The Greek army annexed Palestine in 332 B.C. which they wrested from the Persians. In 327 B.C. Alexander conquered India, then he died in Babylon in 323 B.C. The Greeks immediately effected a culture change in Palestine, requiring the Jews to abandon Hebrew and to adopt the Greek language and traditions. One of the major accomplishments of the period was the translation of the Old Testament into Greek (known as the Septuagint LXX). This particular translation grew in popularity, and by the time Christ was born it had become the most commonly accepted version of the Old Testament. According to Drane1, the translation of the Old Testament to Greek was the main reason why many Greeks and Romans became attracted to and adopted Judaism because it was now in a language they understood. Antiochus IV Epiphanes From the time of Alexander’s death, his field marshals waged war with each other to strived to maintain dominion over the conquered lands. Seleucus and Ptolemy, two such generals, each established a dynasty, with Seleucus winning for himself all the Asian lands that were conquered (the Seleucids), and Ptolemy gaining control over Egypt (his descendants being thereafter called the Ptolemies). Both generals claimed Palestine as falling under their control. Eventually, Palestine was seized and annexed by Ptolemy, with Seleucus conceding. History will bear out later, however, that the Seleucids did not relinquish claim over Palestine and sought to recover it. The manner by which Ptolemy took over Palestine is itself an interesting story. Jerusalem would not yield easily, Ptolemy knew, so he accomplished his conquest on a Sabbath, knowing that the Jews would not defend themselves on this day. Historical scribes later portrayed this event as indicative of foolishness on the part of the conquered Jews, but it is also taken as an example of the deep reverence this people had for their faith.2 The generals continued to wage war with each other until they were finally subjugated during the Roman conquest in 197 B.C. However, as early as 198 B.C., Antiochus III (also known as Antiochus the Great), successor to Seleucus and king of Hellenistic Syria, attempted to, and succeeded in, capturing Palestine from Egypt. With the triumph of Rome over Syria in 189 B.C. Antiochus III was forced to give up large sums of money as security against any Roman invasion. He also gave up as hostages members of his family, for which reason his third son, Antiochus IV, stayed in Rome from 189 to 175. It was here that Antiochus IV came to assimilate and admire Roman institutions and policies3. Antiochus the Great died in 187 B.C., and was succeeded by his eldest son Seleucus IV Philopator as king of Syria. Seleucus dies in 175 B.C., however, and because his young son was still a boy incapable of ruling the kingdom, the throne was usurped by his brother Antiochus IV. The latter eventually murders his nephew in order the consolidate his hold on the throne as king of Syria and the Seleucid empire. In 169 B.C., Antiochus IV invades Egypt and captures its king, Ptolemy VI. Although Antiochus withdraws eventually from Egypt, he still maintained an active interest in it. Since Palestine bordered Egypt, Antiochus realized he needed to foster a loyal Hellenized population in that location. It was then that a group of Jews approached him and devised the plan of capture. The high priest Onias III was to be removed and to take his place would be Jason, his Hellenized brother. At this point, it bears to examine the role of Judaism and the Temple of Jerusalem in succeeding events. There is something symbolic about the Temple of Jerusalem, as such was never just a mere building. It was also symbolically the focus of political and economic power, because of the profound value and sanctity in which it is held by the faithful. The Jews, however, were divided politically, and this fact would prove material in the succeeding events concerning the revolt by the Maccabees. A pro-Syrian faction desired to cull the favor of the earlier king Seleucus, and thus revealed to him that there was secluded in the Temple in Jerusalem much wealth, as it was being used as a repository of treasures (inasmuch as there were no banks at that time). It was generally assumed that a thief would not risk the anger of God by taking what items he protected. Seleucus thereafter dispatched an official by the name of Heliodorus with the task of confiscating the wealth ensconced in the Temple. Heliodorus was unsuccessful, however, because the speculation is that he was beaten up by a Jew. Because of the thwarting of the Syrian attempt, the intention of the Hellenized Jews was thus made public. Under Antiochus, the pro-Syrian Jews effected the removal of the High Priest, in the hope of controlling the government. Jason was therefore installed, and commenced to set up a Greek constitution and to coin Greek money. Needless to say, the Jewish faithful were outraged, because it is the first time since the Babylonian Captivity that a non-Jewish government meddled in the affairs of the priesthood. However with the Hellenizers in control, gymnasiums were built within the city, and by which it was expected that young people would be influenced. The young priests were encouraged to participate in Greek style sports, at which the athletes, in Greek fashion, worked out in complete nudity. Young Jews thus felt compelled to undergo some sort of reverse circumcision, as being circumcised pursuant to Jewish traditions made them feel despised and ridiculed. Jerusalem was overrun with conspicuous and flagrant display of Greek style, clothes, names and language, as well as Greek religion and loose (by Jewish standards) morality4. Antiochus implemented a cruel and oppressive rule over the Jews, beginning with the act of polluting the Temple in Jerusalem in 168 B.C. and suspending Jewish sacrifices. He commences active persecution of the Jews, for which he was “The Madman”. (Antiochus himself assumed the name “Epiphanes” which meant “the visible god”, which his Jewish detractors distorted into “Epimanes” which meant “the madman”.) He appropriated the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and dedicated it to the worship of the Greek god, Zeus whose status was prominently displayed above the temple’s altar. Antiochus also replaced Jason with Menelaus, who was not a member of the priestly family and who held little deference for Jewish traditions, being concerned only with power. In a further desecration to the Temple, Antiochus sold off some of the sacred vessels in it as there was discovered to be not enough money in the Temple as he was originally led to believe. Antiochus continued to persecute the Jews, since to him to be un-Hellenized was to be a uncivilized and rebellious. He launched open militarization, sending the Syrian army to march into Jerusalem, whereat many loyal Jews were killed while others fled to the hills. Among those who remained, restrictions were imposed prohibiting the observance of the Sabbath, holy days, and the practice of circumcision. One of the most abhorrent acts of defilement, the most detestable animals (pigs, for instance) were sacrificed on the altar of the Temple of Jerusalem. Finally, there was a most abominable act then perpetrated which is referred to as the Abomination of Desolation, a phrase that appears in Daniel and the gospels of Matthew and Mark, the exact meaning of which still eludes scholars. “While thus disagreeing as to the precise sense of the Hebrew phrase usually rendered by ‘the abomination of desolation’, Christian scholars are practically at one with regard to its general meaning. They commonly admit, and indeed rightly, that the Hebrew expression must needs be understood of some idolatrous emblem, the setting up of which would entail the ultimate desolation of the Temple of Jerusalem (1 Maccabees 1:57; iv, 38)”5 There are some who hazard the guess that this is some reference to a futuristic Anti-Christ6, while some believe that this is an approximation made in the Greek translation that was a Jewish aversion for the name of a pagan deity. Jesus averted to the Abomination of Desolation as a “preliminary of the secondary and greater fulfilment coming in the last days and seventieth week of Daniel.7 Thus, it was a central idea in the intertestamental period that appears in both the Old and New Testaments (Daniel, Mathhew and Mark), and foreshadowed event in the time of Jesus and to which he alluded to in his teachings. The First True Jewish Opposition: Mattathias and Judah the Maccabee Mattathias was a member of the “Hashmonaim” or the Hasmoneans which is a lineage that descended from the priests. Mattathias had five sons: Simon, Eliezer, Judah, Johanan, and Jonathan. When the Syrian soldiers finally arrived at Modin, the town where the family of Mattathias lived, and ordered the sacrifice of a pig to Zeus in honor of Antiochus, a Hellenized Jew stepped forward and offered to perform the sacrifice in lieu of Mattathias. Knowing that they would be forced to eat the defiled meat, Mattathias grabbed a soldier’s sword, struck down the traitorous Jew, stabbed the captain of the Syrian soldiers, and led his sons in killing every single soldier and demolishing the altar erected to Zeus. Mattathias and his sons led the first open resistance to Antiochus’ oppressive reign. Using what would now be known as guerrilla tactics, the small Hasmonean band attacked small groups of Syrian soldiers and, importantly, decided to defend themselves even on the Sabbath, a policy welcomed and emulated by the other Jews. In 167 B.C., the elderly Mattathias died, and was succeeded in the revolt by his son Judah. Distinguishing himself in the resistance movement, Jonah acquired the name “Maccabee” which translated into “The Hammer of God.” When Antiochus finally realized that he was confronted by a full-scale rebellion, he sought to suppress it. The Syrian commanders underestimated the cunning of Judah Maccabee, who came in the dead of night and killed the Syrian forces. The Maccabean soldiers triumphed over the Syrian forces, with the greatest victory at Emmaus which caused the road to Jerusalem to now open. The Maccabean army pressed on to Jerusalem, which then had been in enemy control for three years. Menelaus, the priest installed by Antiochus, fled, as well as the Hellenized Jews. Triumphant, the Temple was cleansed and Jewish worship was re-established. All signs of paganism were eliminated, the altar where sacrifices to Zeus were made was destroyed, the status of Zeus was ground into dust, and a new altar was erected. The Temple was rededicated to God, and the Jews celebrated the first Hanukkah, meaning “Festival of Lights” (from the word “hannak” which meant “to dedicate”). During that celebration, the Miracle of Hanukkah took place; it is related in the Talmud that while the priests had unpaganized oil sufficient to light the Temple Menorah for one day, it nevertheless burned brightly for eight days, at which time the priests were able to prepare ceremonial oil. To this day, the miracle of Hanukkah is recalled during the festival that is observed regularly. It is this annual festival that is described in 1 Maccabees 4:59, and that which Jesus was said to have attended in John 10:22-42. The Maccabeean revolt was the first true and organized resistance which took Antiochus and his generals by surprise, for they were not aware of the resolve and fervor by which the faithful Jews were willing to repel the oppressive forces. It earned back for the Jews their freedom to exercise their religion, a freedom which they were to enjoy until the Roman occupation. The Remainder of the Intertestamental Period The Roman Empire dominated the four gospels of the New Testament. For instance, Luke associated the birth of Christ with the decree of Emperor Augustus ordering the taking of a census.8. Christ was sentenced to death by a Roman magistrate9, a sentence carried out through crucifixion, a form of Roman execution.10 The Romans imposed two primary requirements of its subjects – that they pay taxes, and that they accept the government of Rome. Attempts at rebellion were meted severe punishments. Since the beginning of Roman domination in 63 B.C., the Jews had been paying taxes, but when Judea was annexed as a Roman province, they were doubly burdened with the requisite to pay also provincial taxes. The Romans used wise psychology in choosing the lowest persons from among the inhabitants and designating them tax collectors. In this manner, the people would tend to direct their animosity at these “traitors” rather than the Romans. Jewish tax collectors were so despised that their testimony was not admissible in a Jewish court of law.11 All throughout the four gospels, the Jewish pre-occupation with the payment of taxes is evident, and Jesus’ act of associating with tax collectors was equated with his association with prostitutes. Also worth mentioning are the Herods, who as a people have a significant place in intertestamental history. The rule of this lineage commended with Antipater, governor of Idumea, in 67 B.C.12 In 48 B.C., Antipater was bestowed Roman citizenship and was appointed procurator of Judea by Caesar, in acknowledgment of providing assistance to Caesar in the war against Pompey. Antipater appointed his two sons as governors, namely Phasael over Jerusalem, and Herod over Galilee. In the year 40 B.C., Herod’s power has ascended to such a level that Caesar and the Roman senate appointed him king of Judea. However, Herod is consumed by a jealous rage upon hearing of a rumour of a rival king; this is mentioned in Matthew chapter 2, resulting in the massacre of the innocents as young males below the age of two are ordered put to death by Herod. This part of the story is intricately linked with the nativity story and the escape of the Holy Family into Egypt in order to escape the massacre. It is the backdrop of the enlightenment of Joseph, husband of Mary, who receives the message to escape to Egypt in a dream. After the death of Herod in A.D. 40, his kingdom is divided among this three sons: Archelaus ruled over Judae and Samaria13, Antipas controlled Galilee and Peraea, and Philip exercised rule over the North East regions.14 Finally, of important mention in the intertestamental period is the role of the Pharisees and the Sadducees. There are two prominent Jewish religious groups who are thoroughly mentioned in the New Testament but are not mentioned at all in the Old Testament. While their origins are obscure, the Pharisees are speculated to have emerged from the pious party or Hasidim, and the Saducees are believed to have arisen from the Hellenists at the time of the Maccabean revolt. The word “Pharisee” signifies “separatist,” and there is a possibility that the origins of the name came from the groups that practiced separating tithes and offerings that are required for the temple, or probably because they separated themselves from the other Jewish tribes. On the other hand, the name “Sadducee” is likely to have been taken from Zadok, the priest who lived in the time of David and Solomon.15 Conclusion: This brief account of the intertestamental period intended to do more than a mere recitation of a historical facts but to show the logical flow of historical events, persons and places. Emphasis was placed on Antiochus and Maccabees, the interaction of whom established the Jewish resistance against oppressive rule, and their fierce determination to be free to exercise their faith. The political implication of the Israel’s domination by other countries also becomes an important theme in the life of Jesus, who was largely believed to be the political leader who would have delivered them from subjugation. A detailed study of the Greek domination and Maccabeean deliverance is an interesting historical treatise, but further, it appears a foreshadowing of the New Testament theme of the faithful’s deliverance from spiritual oppression by the liberating grace of the Eucharistic sacrifice. REFERENCES “Antiochus IV Epiphanes.” Encyclopedia Brittanica Online. Accessed 5 September 2009 from Bogomilski, Rabbi Moshe. Vedibarta Bam – And You Shall Speak of Them: Megilat Antiochus The Scroll of the Hasmoneans. Accessed 5 September 2009 from Box, G. H. Judaism in the Greek Period. London: Oxford University Press, 1945, p. 29. Douglas, J.D. The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, part 2 (Leicester: IVP, 1980), 542. Drane, John. Introducing the New Testament. England: Lion Publishing, 1986. G.W. Lorein, “The Antichrist Theme in the Intertestamental Period”, JSP Supp 44, New York: Clark, 2003. Vincent McCann. In What Ways Does a Knowledge of Intertestamental History and Literature Shed Light on the New Testament Gospels, which a Knowledge of the Old Testament Books Alone Could Not? 1998. Accessed 5 September 2009 from Russell, Rusty. “The Intertestamental Period 400-4 B.C.”. Bible-History.com. Accessed 5 September 2009 from Scurlock, Joann. “167 BCE: Hellenism or Reform?” Journal for the Study of Judaism: In the Persian Hellenistic & Roman Period, vol. 31, issue 2, p. 125. “The Abomination of Desolation.” New Advent Encyclopedia, 2009. Accessed 5 September 2009 from Read More