Principles and Practice of Social Work - Research Paper Example

Introduction Social work is a considerably challenging practice, accompanied by perceptions from the public, scholars and the media as being ineffective and even unprofessional at times. As Radford et al. (2011, pp. 107-108) argues, the practice is not only fraught with such perceptions of ineffectiveness but also actual challenges within the system. There is need for much reflection into the current practice and future direction of social work in order to enhance the actual performance and address the perceptions of important sections of the society. The application of theoretical construct to social work practice is quite crucial to sustained success in the contemporary setting (Grey, Plath and Webb 2009, p. 2). This study discusses the social theory based on attachment and the individual theory based on the cognitive/behavioural model, detailing their historical developments and the concepts underlying them. The two theories are then discussed in the practice of social work with abused children. The relationships of these theories with power balance and values are also discussed finally concluding the study through an overview of the work undertaken. Attachment Theory The attachment theory was jointly developed by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth and itself draws from a number of concepts; developmental psychology, information processing, psychology and psychoanalysis (Lishman 2007, p. 66). Bowlby developed the attachment theory in the mid 20th century, focusing on the form, quality and strength of the human attachments made in the early life of an individual and how they affect development and social behaviour. In a departure from Freudian psychoanalytic theory emphasising on internal fantasies, Bolwby instead focused on the actual experiences in the child’s life in determining human development. Here, the quality of the interaction between the child and the parent/care giver- centring on the child’s needs for security and safety- determine lifespan development (Turner 2011, pp. 34-35). Uniquely, the attachment theory interrelates with the paradigms of biological sciences and thus able to settle well with concepts from several aspects of natural sciences such as the evolutionary theory. Ainsworth, on the other hand, provided innovative methodologies able to test Bowlby’s work empirically. She also expanded the theory through contributing aspects such as determining the role of maternal sensitivity to signals from infants in the development of mother-infant attachment (Oppenheim and Goldsmith 2007, p. 63). The discussion of the origin of the attachment theory sets the base for a detailed analysis and explanation of the theory. First, whereas early work in the attachment theory solely focused on the relationship between the child and the mother, contemporary attachment theory encompasses the developmental aspects of the entire lifespan. The contemporary theory also establishes the primary carer (mother, father, grandparents and guardian among others) rather than simply the mother in establishment of the attachment relationship. The theory sets off by depicting the situation of a human infant; poor vision, unable to move and weak and consequently vulnerable to environmental factors. Thus, the child is absolutely dependent on the primary carer to survive (Winston 2003, pp. 38-40). In Freudian psychoanalytic fashion, the attachment theory incorporates the view that children are born with several pre-programmed behavioural systems to enable them survive in reaction to stimuli from the environment. The external stimuli enable the child to exhibit attachment behaviour, bringing the child closer to the carer. The carer provides care and protection desired by the child, leading to the formation of an attachment bond that enables the child to learn emotional regulation and psychosocial understanding (Payne 2005, p. 73). The attachment relationships formed between the child and the carer falls under four classifications that can be applied in social work efforts; secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant and disorganised. In the secure relationship, the carer is responsive, caring, sensitive and accepting to the child. Children in this relationship have their safety and security needs met and, thus, can direct their energies to exploring the environment. However, they may be distressed in the absence of their carers due to the strength of the attachment bond formed (Walsh 2010, p. 65). Ambivalent relationships arise when the carer’s responsiveness is inconsistent and somewhat insensitive to the children. The children adopt hyper-vigilantism for fear of abandonment, exhibiting heightened attachment seeking behaviour to counter the carer’s insensitivity. The children are distressed in the absence of their carers, which does not abate when their carers return. Avoidant children, on the other hand, have experienced carer behaviours that are dismissive when the child displays attachment behaviour. The child develops avoidant techniques towards the carer, downplaying their feelings of needing attachment. They give up the proximity seeking behaviours due to the unavailability of the carer. Hence, they exhibit behaviours such as appearing undisturbed whether or not their carers are present (66). The last class of attachment is disorganised, where the child exhibits both proximity seeking and avoidance behaviour. This happens in cases where the carer is frightening or fails to conceal their apprehension to the child. When such children are faced with problems, they have no option than to turn to the carer who is also frightening. Thus, the child lacks a clear strategy to form an attachment with the carer (Schofield and Beek 2006, p. 102). The applicability of any theory to the lifespan of an individual is what makes it useful in social work. The work undertaken by several authors and scholars indicate that the attachment theory finds significance in the life span of individuals. For instance, Fonagy (2001, p. 3) argues that our early experiences of attachment influence attachment to our children, and thus determines parenting capabilities. Bilfuco et al. (2002, pp. 33-45) undertook a study that demonstrated an association between early attachment experiences and depressive behaviour. Research tools that assess attachment in adults have been developed and used in effecting adoption and fostering, such as the Adult Attachment Interview and the Attachment Style Interview (Bilfuco et al. 2008, pp. 2-3). As an approach to social work practice, the attachment theory may follow different techniques depending on the specific situation. However, all approaches using theory share the same underlying concepts, entailing correctly discerning the developmental dispositions as determined by early childhood attachment. The attachment theory approach to social work depicts the behaviour of a client in a social setting as determined by their attachment; thus, the theory is a social one (Fallowfield 2009). The Cognitive/Behavioural Theory A brief overview of the development of cognitive/behavioural models establishes that they are a 20th century integration of two approaches; behavioural theory and cognitive theory. Behavioural theory revolves around behaviour outcomes are manipulated to increase or decrease depending on their outcomes. Cognitive theory, on the other hand, entails thought processes impacting individual’s emotional functioning (Schmied and Tully 2009, p. 13). Behavioural theories owe their development to constructive work from several thinkers and scholars over years. The works of Watson and Adler in the early 20th century developed the first behavioural therapies, followed by the work of Skinner in the 1940s. In a drastic shift from psychoanalysis, behavioural theories focused on learning theories such as classic conditioning and operant conditioning. In classic conditioning, behaviours are conditioned to expected outcomes of an event while in operant conditioning; behaviours accompanied by satisfying results tend to be repeated while those accompanied by unpleasant results are avoided (Joughin 2006, p. 3). The failure of behavioural theories to address the thought processes linked with emotional dispositions led to integration of behaviourism with cognitive theories. Cognitive theories establish that interpretation of events occurs through filtering past experiences, cultural history and prevailing moods. In turn, these considerations shape the beliefs and thinking of individuals (Schmied and Tully 2009, 42). The integration was largely boosted by the almost revolutionary advent of cognitive theory in the field of psychology in the 1970s. More emphasis was now being placed on the manner of information processing in people alongside the impacts of different categories of attention and memory. The amalgamation of the two theories led to the appreciation that thinking influences behaviour; it either motivates or discourages an individual’s behaviour in given situations (Bailey 2001, pp. 226-227). The central concepts in the cognitive-behavioural theory include cognitive-schemata, automatic thoughts, cognitive distortion and the content specificity hypothesis. Schemata refer to the knowledge structures that are representative of an individual’s knowledge about self and the world (Ronen and Freeman 2007, p. 38). Cognitive schemata are developed as experiences reinforce each other over time, helping develop a set of beliefs through which individuals perceive self, other people, relationships and the world at large. Our cognitive schemata help determine our automatic thoughts based on immediate assumptions of an experience being either positive or negative (39). The two concepts- cognitive schemata and automatic thoughts- help establish that situations trigger assumptions which then help determine automatic reactions through which an event is filtered. Thus, our experiences are subjective, going through interpretations. When the automatic thoughts wrongfully fit and experience with the core belief/schema, cognitive distortion arises (Schmied and Tully 2009, p. 28). The cognitive/behavioural theory details how thoughts are generated and established, leading to our emotional and behavioural reactions to a given situation (Schmied and Tully 2009, p. 18). When applied to emotional and behavioural problems, cognitive/behavioural approach explains the timeline of problem development and how such problems impact significant areas in our lives. The content-specificity hypothesis is a framework that recognises the automatic thoughts that maintain schemas about self and others. Cognitive theory grounds on the view that different emotional states in an individual are constructed from organisation of cognitions that are unique to the given states. This results in a situation where characteristic thoughts and beliefs distinguish individuals into groups (Whitefield and Williams 2003, pp. 23-25). As a theory guiding social work practice, cognitive/behavioural theory applies cognitive and behavioural approaches to modify maladaptive thinking and behavioural disposition. It is an individual-based theory in which the therapist and the client collaborate to identify the problems in the client’s thoughts and behaviour. This enables the therapist to establish the best tools and techniques for the client to help them rectify their thoughts, feelings and behaviours in given situations (Schmied and Tully 2009, 48). As an approach to social work and therapy, cognitive/behavioural theory follows a variety of techniques based on different sections of the society, different populations and different issues. However, the underlying principles of cognitive/behavioural theory remain the same in all these approaches. This principle entails the integrated view that situations on themselves do not elicit emotions in an individual. Rather, cognitive appraisal of meaning of the given situation to the individual mediates the feelings. The cognitive appraisals often base from cognitive distortions of what is real or faulty thinking that defines the individual’s schemas or core beliefs (Bailey 2001, p. 224). For instance, self appraisal as anxious individual invited to a social gathering (the event) may think that all eyes will be focused on them (automatic thinking), and thus shun attending such a gathering (behaviour). The thought, which may not be a true representation of reality (cognitive distortion) helps perpetuate the anxiety and reinforces the individual’s decision. Cognitive/behavioural theory in practice seeks to take care of the cognitive distortions of reality, replacing these with realistic and helpful thoughts that alter the individual’s emotions and behaviour in a given situation (Joughin 2006, p. 5). The Attachment and Cognitive/Behavioural Theories in Social Work with Children: Child Abuse Child abuse is a major rationale for social worker’s assessment to arrive at the conclusion that the child’s continued stay in their current setting is no longer viable. Child abuse involves backgrounds with physical, sexual and emotional abuse, contributing majority of the cases that are within the social work system in many countries including the UK (Cocker 2008, p. 3). In all this cases, the child grows in significantly deleterious family circumstances and problems that allow for child abuse to occur. Thus, the social worker deal with a child whose attachment pattern falls under the three insecure classifications as discussed earlier. In DOH’s (2000) ecological approach to child needs assessment, the child’s physical and mental health, safety, education, housing and other considerations are made, indicating considerations of attachment during assessment. Attachment also informs the interventions generated since the carers have to assure secure attachment and emotional warmth to the child. Thus, the attachment theory aids in the assessment of child abuse as well as the interventions instituted. The cognitive/behavioural approach to child abuse entails dealing with persistent exhibition of difficult behaviour including short tempers and heightened aggressiveness. Such children are classified as having EBD (emotional and behavioural difficulties) or ODD (oppositional defiant behaviour). When a child has these or the more serious conduct disorder (CD) as would arise due to abuse, the cognitive/behavioural approach is important in establishing the specific behaviours and addressing the beliefs of the child that underlie such behaviours (Joughin 2006, p. 3). Attachment and Cognitive/Behavioural Theories: Relationship with Power and Value Issues in Social Work Contemporary social work has experienced a paradigm shift towards a more client-centred approach to practice. This shift typifies the issue of power balance among the stakeholders of the social work system as well as social work values as they relate to the traditional theoretical models applied in social work. Here, social work gives power to the client and appreciates their contribution to the assessment and interventions in optimising the overall efficacy of intervention (National Services Framework 2004). The client centred approach promotes values such as respecting the client, consulting, informing and involving them in the decision-making process in order to empower them. The overall impact is a shift of power towards the client. Upon analysis, the attachment approach entails ecological aspects (the carer-child relationship) and thus centres on the client. Whereas observation is important in the assessment of needs, the attachment approach also relies on involving the client in the assessment, providing them with the right information and thus serving to empower them (DOH 2000). However, a lot of decision-making resides with the social worker as they have the responsibility of determining, for instance, where the child has the best chances to find the right attachment. Thus, the attachment approach fails to significantly transfer the power to the client as conceptualised in the client-centred approach. The cognitive-behaviour theory, on the other hand, involves the client in defining their behaviours and understanding the cognition that determines such behaviour/reaction to a situation. The client is also involved in developing intervention strategies to correct the cognitive distortion. However, behaviour change strategies often appear to be prescribed in top-down manner that fails to uphold the power balance favouring the client. As the National Service Framework (2004) states, social work approaches should treat each client uniquely even when basing on individual theories. Thus, the execution of attachment-informed or cognitive/behavioural social work determines the level of client-centred approach achieved. Conclusion The attachment theory grounds on the carer providing the care and protection desired by the child, leading to the formation of an attachment bond. The dynamics of such a bond result in secure, ambivalent, avoidant and disorganised attachment which determine how social work is executed. The cognitive/behavioural theory is based on how thought processing influences behaviour in a given circumstance. In such cases, cognitive distortion results in anomalous behaviour in the individual. Social work basing on the cognitive/behavioural model seeks to identify the behaviours, the thought processes behind them and, thus, ultimately address the cognitive distortion. In child abuse, the attachment theory proves essential in the assessment process as well as determining the appropriate interventions for the child basing on deficiencies in attachment. The cognitive/behaviour model helps to understand the child and thus eases assessment, while also helping to correct any behavioural anomalies that may arise due to their abuse experiences. Through considerably involving the client in assessment and interventions, the two theories help to promote client-centred social work alongside its values. However, the social work system retains significant power and effectively keeps the power to the system. Personalised execution at the single case level helps to uphold the values and power balance promoted by the client-centred approach to social work. References Bailey, V 2001, “Cognitive–behavioural therapies for children and adolescents”, Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, vol. 7, pp. 224-232. Bifulco, A, Moran, PM, Ball, C and Bernazzani, O 2002, “Adult attachment style: Its relationship to clinical depression”, Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology, vol. 37, pp. 50-59. Bifulco, A, Jacobs, C, Bunn, A, Thomas, G and Irving, K 2008, “The Attachment Style Interview (ASI): A support-based adult assessment tool for adoption and fostering practice”, Adoption and Fostering, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 33-45. Cocker, C 2008, Social work with looked after children. Exeter: Learning Matters. Department of Health 2000, Framework for the assessment of children in need and their families, The Stationary Office. Fallowfield, J 2009, “Attachment theory and social work with 'looked after' children and their families”, Good Enough Caring, no. 98. Fonagy, P 2001, Attachment theory and psychoanalysis. Rotledge. Grey, M, Plath, D & Webb, SA 2009, Evidence-based social work: A critical stance, Routledge. Joughin, C 2006, “Cognitive behaviour therapy can be effective in managing behavioural problems and conduct disorder in pre-adolescence: What works for children group. Economic and Social Research Council, pp. 2-11. Kendall, PC 2011, Child and adolescent therapy: Cognitive behaviour practices, The Guildford Press. Lishman, J 2007, Handbook for practice learning in social work and social care: Knowledge and theory, Crown. National Services Framework 2004, NSF standard two person-centred care, viewed 26 January 2012from, Oppenheim, D & Goldsmith, DF 2007, Attachment theory in clinical work with children, The Guildford Press. Payne, M 2005, Modern social work theory. Palgrave. Ronen, T & Freeman, A 2007, Cognitive behaviour therapy in clinical social work practice, Springer. Schofield, G and Beek, M 2006, Attachment handbook for foster care and adoption. BAAF. Schmied, V & Tully, L 2009, “Effective strategies and interventions for adolescents in a child protection context”, Centre for Parenting & Research, pp. 1-52. Turner, FJ 2011, Social work treatment: Interlocking integrative approaches, OUP. Walsh, J 2006, Theories for direct social work practice, Cencage Learning. Whitfield, G and Williams, C 2003, “The evidence base for cognitive–behavioural therapy in depression: delivery in busy clinical settings”, Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, vol. 9, pp. 21-30. Winston, R 2003, The human instinct: How our primeval impulses shape our modern lives. Bantam books Read More