The Impact and Possible Effects of Witnessing Domestic Violence as a Child - Coursework Example

The impact and possible effects of witnessing domestic violence as a child BY YOU YOUR SCHOOL INO HERE HERE The impact and possible effects of witnessing domestic violence as a child Introduction Domestic violence can include physical or sexual assault or engaging in threats of hostility that involve intimidation toward physical assault (Shipway 2004). It can also include verbal abuse that is an attempt to harm another through the use of inappropriate psychological attacks (Shipway). It is estimated that an alarming 41.5 percent of women in society have been physically assaulted (Buzawa, Buzawa and Stark 2012). Domestic violence is not, however, just a phenomenon impacting women. Approximately 40 percent of all domestic violence victims in the United Kingdom were men between 2004 and 2009, according to the British Crime Survey (Campbell 2010). Furthermore, an NSPCC survey focusing on children between 11 and 16 years of age indicated that one in 12 youths have been kept awake whilst listening to the sounds of domestic violence (NSPCC 2009). There are compelling long-term psychological implications for victims who have witnessed domestic violence in an environment where DV is prevalent. Fear, anxiety, depression, nightmares and even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are common psychological problems that occur as a result of being victimized domestically (Shipway). However, of much greater concern is the impact on children who have been witness to domestic violence. A study conducted by the Adverse Childhood Experiences (2013) revealed that children who are regularly exposed to domestic violence were at much higher risk for development of physical health issues, mental and behavioural problems, social adjustment difficulties and cognitive problems. An international study involving a recruited sample of 1,393 adolescents indicated that prevalence of domestic violence was an element of lifestyle, with 67 percent of respondents indicating experience with some form of symbolic parental aggression (Lepisto, Luukkala and Paavilainen 2011). Symbolic parental aggression is a form of communication in which a parent intends to cause psychological harm to another (Vissing, Straus, Gelles and Harrop 1991). The implications of long-term social, behavioural, and psychological problems are of paramount interest to researchers as children represent the future of society and require insulation from domestic intimidation to ensure proper adjustment into adulthood. Understanding the potential impact and effects on children who have been witness to domestic violence is important as it has become a pervasive social problem. As the volume of children who have witnessed domestic violence is quite significant, this essay seeks to explore the consequences of this and subsequently add to the knowledge base in this field of study. The plethora of negative implications for children Children who have witnessed domestic violence (DV) often develop fear and social inhibition as compared to children who have not experienced such violence. A common outcome of being witness to DV is the development of antisocial behaviours (Adams 2006). Antisocial disorders are classified as an all-encompassing pattern of indifference or disregard for others in society; a lack of empathy or moral conscience in regards to respecting the rights of other individuals (Kazdin 2005). Behaviours common with antisocial disorders include recurring deception, a complete lack of conformity to established social norms, aggressiveness toward others, and maintaining a lack of regret and repentance for having caused harm to another (Henslin 2005). Antisocial behavioural development is of paramount concern to society as it often serves as the underpinning for criminal behaviour and serves as a predictor of poor adult sociological adjustment (Bliesener, Beelman and Stemmler 2012) that can potentially impact adult intimate relationships, educational and professional competency levels. During early childhood, children require the establishment of a nurturing and secure base relationship with an important caregiver. If establishment of this emotional attachment is disrupted, permanent damage can be performed against the child’s ability to properly attach to others into adulthood, leading to development of antisocial behaviours (Fagan 1995). Parents, especially mothers, that illustrate nurturing behaviours, most paramount during infancy, provide for a more stable and emotionally well-adjusted child that is able to regulate their emotional responses, behavioural responses, and generally have a more positive attitude about the social environment and socialisation patterns. Attachment theory explains this phenomenon, asserting that humans have an inherent need to have close proximity to caregivers and receive nurturing and affectionate responses from a parent. Attachment theory, in recent years, has been expanded from infancy to children and adults, suggesting that it is a set of relatively universal needs of all individuals in the pursuit to find security and a sense of social belonging (Rholes and Simpson 2004). Kwong, Bartholomew, Henderson and Trinke (2003) found that when domestic violence occurs between mother and child, it serves as a predictor for relationship violence when the victimised child progresses into adulthood and sustains intimate relationships. This would seem to suggest that the importance of the mother-child relationship is fundamental to establishing positive cognitive and behavioural adjustment for the child as compared to father-child relationships. Hence, attachment theory explains the prevalence of reduced or diminished self-esteem that occurs as a result of exposure to recurring domestic violence instances. Children who experience or are witness to domestic violence have one of their most fundamental needs obliterated: the need for security. According to contemporary psychological theory, an individual cannot achieve self-esteem development or find social belonging without the establishment of perceptions of enhanced security (Weiten and Lloyd 2010). Domestic violence creates a situation in which children have their basic security needs depleted which maintains the potential to create distrust against others and fear of social interactions, hence creating problems with later childhood attachment to others. It is also well-understood that recurring exposure to violence can desensitize children to the violence, hence eroding their sense of empathy toward others (Murray 1995). In order to psychologically insulate the self from perceptions of harm in their environments, some children begin imitating these violent and aggressive behaviours they have witnessed. With the belief that the world surrounding them is unsafe and dangerous, the youth can develop personality traits that are inclusive of unfriendliness, cruelty and aggression (Berger 2003). It is a common response in an environment where there is a legitimate lack of affection for a child to develop a variety of behaviours to boost their own self-esteem, such as exhibiting aggression or even destruction of property, an antisocial behaviour (Hitchins and Van Horn 2005). Research has identified that women who are victims of domestic violence are often unable to manifest authority and control over their children, which also can be a catalyst for future antisocial behaviours with the child (Jackson 2003). The specific reasons for what causes mothers to lose control over their children are not necessarily relevant, only an understanding of the consequences of domestic violence on building a sense of morality and establishment of a model that dictates acceptable child behaviours is important. Children in environments where mothers are victimised by domestic violence creates an environment where neither operant conditioning nor punishment provide a foundation for a better adjusted youth. Hence, in absence of these behaviours, perhaps imposed by the insecurities and anxieties of the victimised mother, children can easily develop antisocial ideologies or otherwise manifest inappropriate behaviours in a variety of different areas. Households that maintain adequate parental child control systems lead to better-adjusted children with behaviours and moral codes that dictate a more socially-productive adulthood. Yet another childhood outcome of being witness to domestic violence is the development of negative cognitive distortions. Poor caregiver attachment occurring as a result of recurrent domestic violence creates a distorted cognitive association between love and aggression, believing that both concepts go hand-in-hand as a result of repetitive domestic hostility (Buzawa et al.). This has significant impacts for the ability of the individual, once entering adulthood, to maintain positive intimate relationships at the romantic level. This can be explained through the theory of intergenerational transmission of violence. This theory asserts that violence tends to persist throughout familial generations and children, through witnessing these negative behaviours, adopt these same aggressions (Markowitz 2001). Social learning theory, additionally, assists in defining the phenomenon of intergenerational transmission of violence theory. Behaviours, during childhood, are learned through association. This is especially true when reinforcement of these behaviours is provided by the aggressor and/or the victim, indicating a sense of acceptability and justification for violence. This cognitive distortion is also enhanced when observed consequences of the behaviour lead to a lack of reprimand and scolding for violent behaviours, a common phenomenon with women who remain in aggressive relationships. Social learning theory asserts that children, who are highly open to suggestion during this period of childhood development, will emulate observed behaviours and establish their own behavioural profile as a result of these observances. Social learning theory reinforces that households which maintain more positive and productive conflict resolution practices and which have established more effective relationship models leads to reduced emulation of these observed behaviours (Kwong et al. 2003). Family members, during certain periods of childhood development, serve as potent motivators and role models through whom children mould their own behaviours and attitudes (Gofen 2009). Social learning theory also supports that emulation of aggressive and hostile behaviours that have been observed in the domestic environment can occur as a result of attention and retention inherent within the child. In order to learn behaviour, the child must actively attend to the behaviours being modelled by another. This process can be conflicted with children that seek asylum in an effort to escape the trauma of observed violence and their individual cognitive abilities. Children that sustain better attention capacity and the cognitive ability to reflect and retain what has been experienced will then, theoretically, be more prone to negative psychological or sociological problems stemming from exposure to domestic violence. An additional discussion Of course, not all children fit the category of emulation of violence as a result of intergenerational transmission of violence nor will all children begin adopting aggressive and hostile behaviours observed through domestic violence as a result of social learning theory. Some children are more resilient, a phenomenon asserted by Buzawa et al. (2012) which is predicted by such factors as having a very high intelligence capability or potent interpersonal skill development within the child. To suggest that all children will be unable to cope with domestic violence observances and experiences or develop the complex psychological outcomes described would be highly irresponsible from a research perspective. If the research community is to address the potential impact and effects of domestic violence in children, then it would be conscientious to recognise that not all children will maintain negative psycho-social consequences when experiencing it. Groves (1999) supports this assertion, suggesting that some children are left virtually unharmed emotionally and psychologically from their experiences with domestic violence which is attributed to, but not exclusive of, the child’s age at the time of the violence incidents, personality constructs within the child, or the level of observance that actually occurred during domestic violence activities. Additionally, the presence of an adult reference figure that can shelter and insulate the child from emotional harm can also enhance a child being unharmed when experiencing domestic violence. The development of emotional intelligence, a method of emotional self-regulation in the child, is known to build resiliency (Beardslee et al. 2010). Hence, children that sustain these inherent traits would theoretically be less predictive of negative psychological outcomes or behavioural emulation of observed violence when exposed to DV. Conclusion As indicated, the most significant problems that occur as a result of childhood exposure to domestic violence include development of antisocial behaviours, intergenerational emulation of these violent actions, or the development of unstable behaviours that are designed to increase diminished self-esteem in the child in order to protect the self and insulate the child from the trauma of violent experiences. As identified previously, not all children will manifest these symptoms, behaviours and attitudes, however the most common are inclusive of the implications described in this essay. Whether caused through direct intervention with DV, the emotional turmoil of the experiences, or through improper parental coping and behavioural modelling that occurs with domestic violence, it is clear that the potential implications and consequences of DV are of substantial concern to society and require significant research focus to identify and combat. References Adams, C. (2006). 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