Roles of Nonhuman Animals in Society - Essay Example

The roles that nonhuman animals play in modern societies and Introduction Human and animals have constructively interacted for centuries. These interactions have been critical in shaping modern societies and the perceived value of these animals in societies (Stewart, Shewe and Gunderson, 2013). However, it is only recently that human-animals studies have gained prominence in sociology (DeMello, 2012). These studies have helped show the critical roles that animals have played and are still playing in the modern society. The roles have changed to some extent over time but the majority of the roles remain the same. Sociologists view human beings as animals; this is contrary to the general view of the world which categorizes humans as the opposite of animals (Hodges, 1999). To differentiate between the two, sociologists have coined the term nonhuman animals. According to Irvine (2004), nonhuman animals are those animals that are capable of displaying the characteristics displayed by human beings though not at the same level or extent. These animals are able to register pain, they have some cognitive ability and memory and some can even feel compassion for other animals or humans (Sanders, 2003). Most of these animals have been domesticated. The British society is one of the many societies that appreciate the roles of these animals, both material and cultural (MacGregor, 2012). Of the many roles that nonhuman animals, the role of a pet is the most significant one. This paper shall examine these various roles that nonhuman animals play in a modern society. The roles of nonhuman animals There are two broad roles that non-human animals play; material roles and cultural roles. The material roles relate to creation of wealth while cultural roles relate to the perceived or real cultural values that these animals possess and impart (Nibert, 2003; Tovey, 2003). The first material role that nonhuman animals played is that they led to urbanisation and industralisation of the modern society (Alger and Alger, 1997). Animals enabled the development and spread of civilisation. According to Bryant (1979), civilisation was propelled by domestication of animals nearly 12,000 years ago. The domestication of animals enabled human beings to use animals in farm activities such as ploughing, irrigating and transportation of harvested materials which were then bartered or sold (Alger and Alger, 1999). Animals relieved human beings from hard labour and accorded them the opportunity to work on other development activities other than sourcing for food (Yates, 2011). Some of the animals that were domesticated include donkeys, horses, dogs, cats, rabbits, fowls and many others. Apart from animal power, nonhuman animals also provided manure and food as the hunters and gatherers settled down and started eating their domesticated animals instead of going to hunt (Hodges, 1999). The meat market spruced up and so did the informal meat industry. After World War II there was a great famine as a result of the war. Food rationing was the norm especially in Britain until 1954 (MacGregor, 2012). The practice of rearing animals for food, thus, intensified and, in five years after the war, fewer people were malnourished or facing starvation as compared to when the war was going on (MacGregor, 2012). In the transport sector, until the advent of the railway about 180 years ago, riding animals such as donkeys and horses was the fastest way of transport. Some societies around the world are still using domesticated animals as the mode of transport despite technological advancements (Yates, 2011). Apart from those roles, nonhuman animals have also contributed towards the development of almost all industries including the food industry, the clothing industry, finance industry and many others. The modern society has changed, but not so much. The roles that non-human animals play are not as many as in the early society. For instance, right now there are less animals being used for transportation as compared to a century ago. However, the meat industry is still vibrant and contributing to the economy. Pet shops sprouted up in the early 1900s. Dogs, cats and other pets are now being commercially being sold. In the 19th Century there was no single pet shop, people used to get pets from friends or domesticate stray animals and, by 1920, the pet food industry had started complementing pet selling. Nonhuman animals are, thus, propelling the economy. Cultural Roles Nonhuman animals have varied roles in the society in the cultural aspect. Some of these roles include the role as subjects of philosophical and ethical discourses, role as reflexive thinkers, roles as entertainment objects, roles as scientific objects, roles as inspiration for creative artists such as poets and painters and, most significantly, roles as pets (Novek, 2005; Wrenn, 2013). a) Role of nonhuman animals as pets Human beings are increasingly adopting animals as their pets. In Britain, for example, studies show that in every one of two houses there is a pet animal translating to 48% of the Britain’s households (MacGregor, 2012). The households with children tend to have a higher prevalence of having pets. Seventy per cent of the households that have children of age six and below, in Britain, had at least one pet. A study conducted established that there are over 24 million pet animals in Britain with around 15 million pet owners (Yates, 2011). The pet animals in Britain include cats, dogs, rabbits, outdoor and indoor fish, horses and fowls and many others. Cats and dogs are the popular pets. At the moment there are around 8 million pet cats spanning around 40 species. There are also around 10 million dogs (MacGregor, 2012). Pet keeping started in the 19th Century. This is as opposed to domestication which started nearly 12, 000 years ago meaning that not all animals that have been domesticated are pets (Flynn, 2000). In terms of demographic characteristics, sixty five per cent of the pet owners in Britain are female while the rest are male. Young women and children owned the majority of the pets as compared to older folks, especially, male (Wrenn, 2013). Nonhumans, as pets, provide companionship to human beings (Alger and Alger, 1999). This is based on the functionalism view of the society. In sociology, there are a myriad of ways of viewing the society. The view that one chooses determines how the individual perceive the actions of that society (Wrenn, 2013). The three most used perspectives in sociology are functionalism, conflict and symbolic interactionist perspectives. The view that pets play a role of human companions is based on the functionalism perspective (Stewart, Shewe and Gunderson, 2013). This is the perspective that the society is stable and seeks to maintain this stability by maintaining the equilibrium (Wrenn, 2013). As such, all the social phenomena that exist in a society react to maintain this stability, smooth-functioning and the existing equilibrium. According to Flynn (2000), this view presumes that it is the lack or inability of the human beings to consummate their relationships with one another that necessitated the adoption of pet animals. However, this view has been refuted by many scholars. Even though there is no generally acceptable theoretical framework explaining the reasons why people keep pet animals, the trend is showing an increase in pet owners (Sanders, 2003). As pets, nonhuman animals fulfilled a projective role, a sociability role and a surrogate role (Adams, 1994). In the projective role, the pets were used by pet owners as their own extension. Pets were used to symbolize the personality of the owners (Albert and Bulcroft, 1988). For instance, the owners that keep dogs and cats as pets are seen to be gentler than those that, for example, keep fowls or horses. This is because dogs and cats are accorded more attention and affection than the latter. The sociability role of pets includes using pets in enabling human-to-human social interactions (Irvine, 2004). Here, pets are seen as the common bond that ties together members of a family or a society that shares the same view and affection towards certain pet animals. This role of animals can only be played when there are values that cut across the society. The third companionship role is the surrogate role. This is the major companionship role than nonhuman animals play. The pets supplement human social interaction as a friends and mates (Irvine, 2004). Some pets have even substituted human relationships. In a study conducted in 2005, about 70% of the dog owners considered their pets as members of their family (Stewart, Shewe and Gunderson, 2013). In another finding, 40% considered their pets as their own children (Flynn, 2000). While this amount of care is a good social force, it has also been blamed for breaking up families where one partner is devoting excessive amounts of time on a pet in the process neglecting the family. In a surrogate role, nonhuman animals can play a friend’s or enemies’ roles. As surrogate friends, pets may play the role of a comforter and a protector (Adams, 1995). It is imperative to note that not all pets play these roles, most do not. As a comforter, nonhuman animals offer emotional support to their owners (Albert and Bulcroft, 1988). A lot of women and children have the tendency of talking to their pets when stressed or sad. The pet animals provide emotional support through listening to their owners, comforting them and radiating their unconditional love (Adams, 1994). Flynn (2000) noted that women who are being physically abused are the ones who are likely to use pets as comforters. Some pets also play the role of a protector. A survey conducted established that cats and dogs have a higher prevalence of protecting their masters (Albert and Bulcroft, 1988). Again, a lot of evidence of the surrogate friends as protectors came from battered women (Adams, 1995). These women explained that the sight of some pets getting in a fight between the woman being battered and the male by attacking the male is not uncommon. As surrogate enemies, pets are used by human beings to hurt others (Flynn, 2000). There are a lot of instances where a husband decides to indirectly hurt the wife by hurting a pet that the wife deeply cares about or the husband blackmails the wife into doing something threatening to hurt the pet if his wishes are not granted. b) The role of nonhuman animals as philosophical and ethical subjects Nonhuman animals have also been used by scholars for a long time now to determine the extent of animals’ cognitive abilities and come up with theories on the same (Arluke, 2003). It is these studies that have enabled the classification and differentiation between human beings and nonhuman animals. Nonhuman animals have enabled the progress of discourse on whether language and rational thought are a prerequisite to have justice (Nibert, 2003). A lot of debate is going on concerning the role language plays in advancing justice and morality. The philosophical point of view is that if animals can prove that they are just and moral yet they do not have language or rational thought then the hypothesis that justice and morality are directly proportional to the use of language and rational thought would be disproved (Stewart, Shewe and Gunderson, 2013). Ethically, studies on nonhuman animals seek to establish whether how human beings treat the marginalised groups in the society is inherently related to how human beings treat nonhuman animals (York and Mancus, 2013). Early studies have indicated that there is a correlation between the two variables. A society that has a lot of pet animals and takes good care of them is likely to treat the marginalised more fairly than a society that does not (Irvine, 2004). Another philosophical field where nonhuman animals have provided some insights is in determining whether animals are reflexive thinkers. These studies seek to establish whether animals have emotions and can experience grief, happiness and sadness (Flynn, 2000). c) The roles of nonhuman animals as spectacle and sport Nonhuman animals have been used for a very long time for entertainment purposes. Bull fighting, cock fighting and use of dogs for hunting are some of the games that were popular in the ancient British society (MacGregor, 2012). Right now there are no bull fighting events in Britain but the sport is widely celebrated in Latin American countries and Mexico. Societies attached cultural importance to these games. Through this form of entertainment, the social bond between members of the society was enhanced (Myers, 2003). The study of these animals also provides an insight into the combative struggle between human beings and animals. d) Inspiring role of nonhuman animals Nonhuman animals have inspired poets, painters and other creative artists in the society (Kalof and Fitzgerald, 2007). These animals have led to development of cultures through growth of languages. For instance, these animals have enabled comparisons to be made through metaphors and imagery. In the ancient British society, for example, a loyal dog was seen as a symbol of faithfulness, a black sheep as a symbol of an outcast member of the society while a bull was a sign of masculinity (Adams, 1995). Since the nonhuman animals were the ones in close proximity with the civilised society, they are the ones who contributed the most towards the development of language and societal norms and values communicated through these pieces of art. e) Role of nonhuman animals as scientific objects The use of animals in scientific speculation and testing is probably the most prevalent role apart from the use of nonhuman animals as pets. Since the advancement of technologies back in the 19th Century doctors have been performing these medical tests to determine cures for human beings (Novek, 2005). Animals such as cats, dogs and chimpanzees have been widely used in the medicine field to provide a medium for experimentation and classification. For instance, it was the tests on animals that led to the discovery of small pox vaccine, the polio vaccine and many others (Adams, 2004). Animal testing is very common in the modern British society. However, this has not gone without resistance from animal rights group who are against the using of animals for vivisection, cloning or any other form of experimentation. Around eight thousands nonhuman animals are used in laboratories for scientific studies every year in Britain (MacGregor, 2012). This high number is what led to the formation of the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection, a lobbying group that fights the use of animals in scientific laboratories citing such actions as subjecting these animals to suffering (Yates, 2011). But scientists are refuting this claim citing the use of these animals as necessary and fitting in the medical advancement of the society. Despite these opposing forces, nonhuman animals continue to play a crucial role in combating infectious diseases, neurological studies, genetics and reproduction studies among others. The permission granted to use apes and other nonhuman primates if there is no other viable alternative was a major breakthrough in Britain after a lengthy debate between the proponents and opponents of this idea. Through animal testing, major developments in medicine have been made. For instance, studies in the 1940s focused on using the monkeys to isolate the different types and forms of polio virus. Through this isolation, a vaccine was developed (Hodges, 1999). By 1965 this continued use of monkeys for experiments enabled the mass production of the polio vaccine and led to the eradication of the disease in Britain. Apes have also been extensively used in the ongoing finding of AIDS cure. Drugs and other solutions that may be detrimental to the health of human beings are first tested on these animals before being given a green light. Apart from medicine, these animals have also impacted in the field of genetics where scientists have tried to clone various animals once successfully cloning a sheep. In the field of surgery, vivisection has been used to teach students about the neurological system, the blood circulatory system, the reproductive systems, the respiratory systems and many others (Hodges, 1999). In conclusion, it is very clear from the aforementioned points that nonhuman animals play very crucial roles in the society. These animals have been crucial in the lives of human beings since time immemorial. Their roles have changed as times and circumstances change. These roles are in two dimensions; material roles and cultural roles. The materials roles are, essentially, those roles that nonhuman animals play to enable wealth creation for human beings (Alger and Alger, 1997). These roles impact the society economically and include the animals’ roles in industrialisation and urbanisation. However, most of the nonhuman roles in the contemporary society relate to the cultural values. The main cultural role of nonhuman animals was that of being a human companion. As pets, these animals could play projective roles, sociability roles or surrogate roles in relation to their owners (Saders, 2003). The role such a pet plays is subjective and depends on the perception of the owner of the pet. The other cultural roles that nonhuman animals play are driving philosophical and ethical debates, entertainment roles, inspirational roles, and scientific objects role (Stewart, Shewe and Gunderson, 2013). Nonhuman animals are, thus, extremely important to the society and should be treated as such because no society is complete without them. References Adams, C., 1994. Bringing peace home: A feminist philosophical perspective on the abuse of women, children, and pet animals. Hypatia, 9, pp. 63-84. Adams, C., 1995. Woman-battering and harm to animals. In C. J. Adams & J. Donovan (Eds.), Animals and women: Feminist theoretical explorations (pp. 55-84).Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Albert, A., and Bulcroft, K., 1988. Pets, families, and the life course. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 50, pp. 543-552. Alger, J., and Alger, S., 1997. Beyond Mead: Symbolic interaction between humans and felines. Society & Animals, 5, pp. 65-81. Alger, J., and Alger, S., 1999. Cat culture, human culture: An ethnographic study of a cat shelter. Society & Animals, 7, pp. 199-218. Arluke, A., 2002. A Sociology of Sociological Animal Studies. Society and Animals, 10(4), pp. 369-374. Bryant, C., 1979. 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