Gender Inequality in Eastern Countries - Essay Example

Gender Inequality in Eastern Countries s Introduction We are living in a world where discrimination is inevitable at all fronts ranging from the extreme racial segregation to social discrimination, to sexual discrimination, and gender segregation. Gender inequality is defined by Smits and Huisman (2013, p.326) as unequal treatment or the individual’s perception based on their gender. It comes up due to the variations in socially constructed gender roles and biologically through hormonal structure, brains structure and chromosomes. In that respect, gender inequality originated from distinctions, either socially constructed or empirically grounded. Gender inequality can also occur in a manner that women and men are subjected to prejudicial treatment on the foundation of gender alone. Gender discrimination is also evident in preferential treatment and networking within the economic market. Globally, the development of gender inequalities in societies is related to a particular phenomenon where in almost all the families women have the key responsibility of taking care of the family members (Palenga-Möllenbeck 2013, p.364). Even if the traditional family structure has been highly changed, as a result of the extensive participation of women in the workplace, governments have not been proved capable of supporting the relevant transition (Palenga-Möllenbeck 2013, p.364). Gender inequality in education has been utilized as an indicator for education. As a result, women continue to face inequalities in their daily activities, including their studies, either in an academic or a professional context. The paper narrows down to a specific aspect of gender inequality: gender inequality in education. Education is a critical part of all peoples’ life. In fact, education is considered as an indispensable requirement for the professional development of each individual. This means that the person who faces problems in accessing education of appropriate quality has limited chances to secure a job that would be related to important benefits. This paper helps to understand how gender inequalities in education could affect the position of women in the job market leading to further inequalities, such as inequalities related to the level of salary and job benefits, as compared to the salary and job benefits of men. In addition, the paper explains the various aspects of gender inequality in education, including education at academic level and in the workplace. Also, it addresses a critical issue whether gender inequality in education is related to geography. The case of Eastern nations such as India and China and their relationship to gender inequalities is set as the key theme of this paper due to the fact that in these societies, the signs for gender inequality in education seem to be more compared to Western societies. This paper also shows the reasons of the above phenomenon and the potential interaction of this trend with other socio-cultural trends, such as the participation of women in the workplace. In this way, this paper is differentiated from existing studies such as gender inequalities in education that are presented and analyzed not only in a broad view through theoretical perspectives; but also in practice through their application in women’s daily life in societies where social and cultural pressures are quite strong especially in the eastern nations such as India and China. 2. Literature Review Gender inequality is considered as a pervasive worldwide phenomenon. On the political sphere, research on gender inequalities have been attempting to seek for explanations for the low female representation in most nations political regimes, development levels, and electoral systems (Kassem, 2012, p. 233). Politics plays a very crucial role in the ideas, interests and ideas required to reshape the social welfare and gender inequality in politics (Nicola & Holmes, 2010). In the economic world, most men have had a tendency to occupy positions of power within the job economy. As a result of the taste and preference for other men due to the fact that they share the same traits, these male figures in power have typically have a higher probability to hire or promote other men, as a consequence, discriminating against women (Wood, 2005). In relation to culture, gender inequality is due to persistent discrimination of a particular group of people on the basis of gender, and it usually depicts itself differently in relation to culture, race, politics, economic circumstances, and nation (Massey, 2005, p.112). Furthermore, it is viewed as the causal factor of violence towards female figures. Although in individual situations gender discrimination occurs to both women and men, discrimination against women is a deep-rooted global pandemic. Hurst (2007, p.45) argues that in unstable nations rape and violence against girls and women have been utilised as a tool of war (Iannelli & Smyth, 2008). Kassem (2012) points out that in eastern nations such as Lebanon and Afghanistan, female figures have been burnt with acid on their faces for attending formal learning institutions. Gender inequalities in education seem to be a common phenomenon in countries worldwide. However, the level at which such inequalities are developed in each society is not standardized (Vianello & Siemienska, 2012). This fact is made clear if referring to the discrimination that women tend to face when trying to access educational schemes that are available for men in the same social or professional field. For example, in the study of carried out by Boulis & Jacobs (2003) the relationship between gender and the access of physicians to professional practice is explored. They found out that female physicians are less satisfied with the time for patients compared to their male counterparts. There is a possibility that the satisfaction of time by the female providers is disproportionately affected by specific practice conditions due to the fact that male and female physicians approach patient care differently. Secondly, the conditions under which female physicians are asking to make practice are of lower quality and of increased complexity compared to the conditions involved in the practice of male physicians (Boulis & Jacobs 2003, p.80-81). Numerous communities of the Malay Muslims are found in the eastern countries, who have strong beliefs that passion and desire usually carry connotations, particularly when it comes to its application to human beings (Jacobs, 2009) They believe that the mostly women have sexual passion compared to men and that men have more logic. In Asia, an example of continued perpetuation of gender inequality is the ‘missing girls’ phenomenon. As a result of the undervaluing of women, an estimated 120 million males are living due to the infanticide of female children, allocation of resources taken away from female children, and generalised discrimination and violence against women (Anand, 2009). However, according to a study conducted by Adamcyk and Greif (2011) argues that much attention has been driven towards comprehending the connection between education and risky sex-linked behaviours and HIV in the sub-Saharan Africa. They found out that people who were better educated appeared less likely to engage in risky sex-related behaviour, thus having a lower incidence rate of HIV/AIDS. The study utilized data from the Kenyan Demographic and Health Survey that was done in 2003. The researchers concluded that gender inequality and lack of knowledge plays a significant role in explaining the relationship that exists between a woman’s education and sex-related behaviors in sub-Saharan Africa than they do in industrialized countries (Adamcyk & Greif, 2011, p.654-664). This study established that the impacts of education on sexual risk behavior are multifaceted and show a discrepancy across type of risk. Education influences knowledge, attitudes, communication skills, in relation to spousal traits, male dominance and gender norms, all of which affect the process of decision-making about sexual behavior (Adamcyk & Greif, 2011, p. 666). At this point reference should be made to the study of Erdogan, Yildirim Tosuner (2012). The above researchers note that a high educational background is usually related to a better health status, possibly because the individual involved is more aware of the consequences of food/ style of life on his health, a fact that prevents him from being exposed to severe health risks (Erdogan, Yildirim & Tosuner, 2012, p.1861). On the other hand, Kassem (2012, p.235) notes that, in countries where the access of women to education is easier, women can easier enter the political life, as members of political parties. Such potentials are more in democratic regimes, where the access of women to education is quite easy, compared to autocratic regimes (Kassem, 2012, p.235). Another factor influencing the career of women in politics is the GDP of the country; in countries where the growth of the economy is significant women have more chances to enter politics successfully; in poor countries the potentials of women to participate in their country’s political life is limited (Kassem, 2012, p.235). Gender inequality is considered as the cause of poverty and vulnerability in the society. Both household and intra-household resources and knowledge are the major influences of a person’s ability to take advantage of the external opportunities for livelihood or respond to the threats accordingly. At the same time, Bisikaa, Ntatab and Konyani (2009) explain that the gender inequalities in education can have another implication: they can make the entry of women to education more difficult. In a study developed in Malawi (Bisikaa, Ntatab & Konyani 2009, p.287) it was made clear that girls were more likely to face hostility when trying to enter education, a problem that can exist even in the initial phases of education, for example, ‘during primary school’ (2009, p.287). The level of gender inequalities in education is also discussed in the study of Evertsson et al. (2009). In the above study the changes in gender inequalities, as related to education, are presented especially in regard to three countries, i.e. ‘Netherlands, Sweden and USA’ (Evertsson et al. 2009, p.210). It is noted that gender inequalities are likely to be at high levels in the workplace when education is poor. However, this finding refers to all aspects of work apart from earnings gap; the latter seems to be relatively independent, at least in the case of USA, from the educational background of individuals involved, no matter if they are men or women (Evertsson et al. 2009, p.210-211). Through the literature review it has been revealed that the relationship between gender inequalities and education has not been adequately explored. Indeed, in most of the studies emphasis is given to gender inequalities as related to the workplace, the level of payment, the exposure to health risks and so on. The relationship between gender inequalities and education is not particularly discussed in the literature; this paper could help to cover this gap and to show the relevance of this theme to Eastern Societies. 3. Narrowed research topic After reviewing a series of studies published in regard to gender inequalities and education, the research paper focuses on a specific aspect of the above topic: gender inequalities and education as appeared in the Eastern nations. Two Eastern countries, China and India, have been chosen as examples for showing the relationship between gender inequalities and education. The scanty availability of literature on the relationship between gender inequalities and education shows that the topic has not been adequately explored. Indeed, in most of the studies the emphasis is given to gender inequalities as related to the workplace, the level of payment, the exposure to health risks and so on. The relationship between gender inequalities and education is not particularly discussed in the literature; this paper could help to cover this gap and to show the relevance of this theme to the Eastern countries such as India and China. According to Anand, education is often critical for explaining the role of genders in a particular social and cultural context. In India the explanation of the role of genders is considered as critical for securing social piece and unity (2009, p.96). Social work is the scientific sector through which ‘gender sensitization’ (Anand 2009, p.97) is mostly attempted. 4. Research Questions. 1. How do gender inequalities interact with education in Eastern Societies? In particular reference is made to the role of education in controlling gender inequalities, the level at which genders have access to education and the factors that prevent the limitation of gender inequalities in education 2. How would the gender inequalities in education be eliminated? Emphasis is given to gender inequalities that have been deeply associated with the Eastern Societies. In order to eliminate the gender inequalities, measures that have been taken in Western Societies to address this problem could be also used, after being appropriately customized, in Eastern nations. In India studies have shown that in its villages women are discouraged to search for education (Anand, 2009). Women in India carry the burden of being viewed as symbols and carriers of family heritage (Desai et al., 2010). This is because India is a predominantly patriarchal society. The women represent almost half of the total national population, yet they continue to suffer from low education and opportunities for personal development, poor nutritional health status (Anand, 2009, p. 96). It has been found that gender inequality is deeply embedded in the nation that girls can not access secondary education. Besides, women employment is still very low and has declined further in the recent years. A study by (Anand, 2009) found that Indian women still have unequal access to and control of the family resources, for example, control over land, education and restrictions on their geographical mobility. 5. Sampling and Research Design. The research study will use an empirical design with a quantitative approach. Data available in National Surveys, in Eastern countries, will be collected and used to explore the issues outlined in the study’s research questions. The data retrieved through the above source will be analyzed and discussed, and government reports, as well reviewing of academic documents. The research will apply the probability sampling method known as simple random sampling technique. Simple random sample is regarded as a subset of the individuals that are selected from a larger population. The units composing a population are actually assigned number (Haan, 2009, p. 182). Every individual will be randomly selected entirely by chance. In that respect, during the sampling process each person has similar probability of being selected at any instance. The method suits this research study because it is free from classification error; it offers unbiased information on the population, and it also needs minimal advanced knowledge of the population. Besides, its simplicity makes it easy to interpret the data collected. Simple random sampling best suits the research study because much information is available about the gender inequalities in the female population. Women in China and India will be the target population for this study. The researcher will select a sample 15 respondents from the target population, and will then proceed to write down the 15 number on a big piece of paper of the women respondents from the target population, cut it out in strips and place all the strips in a tin. The researcher will then put his hand inside the tin, without looking, and draw 15 strips one by one to represent his sample. The researcher is of the view that the sample of 15 investigators will provide a true reflection of the features of the target population. As a consequence, the method affects external validity of the data. 5. Data production strategy: The research study aims at determining the relationship between gender inequalities and education something which greatly affects the society. That is why the research opted for content analysis as a way of collecting data. Babbie and Benaquisto (2014) define content analysis as a method that is used to interpret the content of the text data, while Haan (2009, p.278) describes content analysis as the study of recorded communication. This data collection strategy was applied in this research because it answers the questions who what, who, why and what in a systematic and replicable manner based on the explicit rules of coding. Through content analysis the researcher is able to determine if the women experienced were violent or non-violent. Besides, this will enable the researcher to analyse a significantly huge amount of data since the end product of coding is numerical. Therefore, the method collects and analyses data from the print, verbal, or electronic communication. As consequence, the researcher was able to come up with objective inferences about gender inequalities and education. Haan (2009, p.289) notes that the advantages of content analysis are: it has no impact on the subject being studied, it allows the study of proccesses happening over a long-time, as well as allowing for correction of errors. On the other hand, focus groups entail group interviewing in order to access required information. Haan (2009, p.330) asserts that in focus groups the researcher discusses the issue as at had with a small group of people as opposed to a single person. This was applicable for the study considering that gender inequalities in women is a global phenomenon that is why the research will interview 6-10 women collectively. The method suits the research questions because a group of women in China and India will be asked about their opinion, perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes towards gender inequalities and its connection to education. The questions will be asked in an interactive group setting where the respondents were free to talk with the other group members. Data collected from focus group provides the researcher with the opportunity to analyse the strength with which a participant holds an opinion. Besides, at the collective level, the data collected from these groups can sometimes reveal common views. According to Krueger (1988, p.44-45), the use of focus groups is flexible, low in cost, has high face validity, and speedy results. Methods to ensure validity Haan (2009) explains that validity is a means of accuracy, meaningfulness and credibility of the research project as a whole. To ensure data validity, the researcher will ask each participant similar questions. Besides, validity is ensured because the research will use comparable groups of women in India and China, although Haan (2009, p.216) argues that it may be affected by compensation when the other members ‘tender loving’ after giving their experiences. This may lead to external validity since the conclusions that will be drawn from the experimental results may not generalise the ‘real world’ of gender inequalities in Eastern nations. 6. Ethical Considerations Risks The researcher will ensure that none of the participants will be exposed to undue physical or psychological harm. Participants will not be exposed to undue stress, embarrassment or loss of self-esteem. Names of participants will not be revealed in the research report. Each participant in the sample will be referred to a number, from 1 to15. Approvals: Informed consent Participants will be informed in a letter of the nature of and the reason for the study. The letter will also inform, that participation is voluntary and they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time if they feel what they recall is painful. The participants will be informed that they are not compelled to take part in the research and might terminate their participation at any time. Confidentiality and Anonymity The researcher will inform participants that their responses to questions are strictly private and confidential and would not be discuss with anyone else. The researcher will also inform the participants that their anonymity is guaranteed, by referring to them as numbers and not indicate their names. 7. Conclusion Gender inequality has been proved to be closely related to education (Evertsson et al., 2009). However, the modes of interaction between gender inequality and education are not standardized; different social and cultural characteristics of societies internationally lead to different levels of gender inequality. Also, in societies with similar social structure gender inequality may be differentiated either because of different political environment or because of temporary economic pressures, as such pressures can result to gender inequalities in a variety of fields, such as health, engineering, transport and agricultural fields. In other words, gender inequality relies on education but not at similar level. In that respect, in Eastern nations such as India and China have many common social and cultural characteristics, where a similar trend can be identified. Since gender inequality and discrimination is considered as the cause of poverty and vulnerability in the society, large-scale socio-economic and cultural change need to be implemented worldwide in order for women to receive sufficient education to improve their economic success and to experience educational parity with their male counterparts. But until then, advancing our understanding on how the educational gradient enhances economic reforms, the importance of social work, the level of human capital in improving health, migrant domestic workers as cited by (Erdogan, Yildirim, & Tosuner, 2012), gender and social classes, and safer sexual practices are vital transitional steps. 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