Closing the Gap on Indigenous Disadvantage in Australia - Literature review Example

Social Sciences The Australian Government is committed to building a strong and fair nation through social inclusion, in which all Australian receive all things fairly that will create a fulfilling and active life for them, especially the Indigenous people. Major cities in Australia are composed of over 40 per cent of Indigenous people with Darwin having the highest population, and Sydney having the largest population of urban Indigenous people. Considering education, economic and housing measures, Indigenous people in remote areas have worse outcomes compared to Indigenous people in major cities. According to the ABS 2006 censure report people of age between 15 to 64 years who live in major cities were not studying or working (Australian Government, 2009). Despite the fact that Australia has risen in prosperity, the extreme and sometimes complex disadvantages have prevented its citizens from getting those opportunities. Weak informal community support, dysfunctional relationships, lack of information and education, behavior and material hardship are problems that Australians are still struggling with. Lack of a solution to these problems will cause circumstances that cannot be tolerated as well as making it costly for all Australians. Indigenous Australian people are the most disadvantaged people of the nation experiencing, poorer health, lower life expectancies, violence and imprisonment. Children from Indigenous community participate at a lower rate in preschool which leads to poor results in numeracy and literacy. They also portray low school retention and high unemployment rate than non-Indigenous people. As a way of responding to this situation, in 2008 the Australian government established the Australian Social Inclusion Board to commit to reduction of problems and build capabilities that allow all Australians to take advantage of opportunities provided by the nation. According to Australian Social Inclusion Board (2010), being socially included means having the resources and capabilities to: i) engage by participating in civic, cultural, local and recreational activities, and connect with people, ii) voice what affect them, iii) learn by participating in training and education, and iv) work by participating in voluntary work and employment. ‘Capabilities’ is the ability of an individual to use opportunities and resources to achieve his or her goals and objectives. Resources are people’s assets and skills in relation to communities, families and individuals. Resources help in supporting people’s opportunities and capabilities allowing them to choose how they would like to participate in the society. On the other hand participation in things like connecting with other people, training or working help people in building support networks, qualifications, and work experience. ‘Learn’ is an important indicator of social inclusion beside other indicators. By participating in schooling and completing a Certificate II or Year 12 enables individuals to improve their lives by participating in community activities and finding employment. People from low socioeconomic groups can find a breakthrough from their disadvantaged circumstances through education (Hayes, Gray and Edwards (2008). According to ABS report of 2006, 40.1 percent of Indigenous Australian students completed Year 12 while non-Indigenous students were at 75.9% (Australian Government, 2009). Although there has been a bit of improvements in reading literacy not made students reach national benchmarks compared to non-Indigenous students. In 2004, 91% of non-Indigenous students met the benchmark of national reading compared to 71% of Indigenous students of Year 7. For numeracy skills, only 52% of Indigenous students met the benchmark while 82% of non-Indigenous students met the benchmark. Poor education affects health, wellbeing and socio-economic status (Australian Social Inclusion Board, 2010). There are several programs the Australian government has put in place in order to improve education in the lives of Indigenous Australians. Through the Australian Indigenous Education Foundation, the government has for over three years provided 20 million dollars from 2009-2010. This is in support of establishment fund to support over 1000 Indigenous Australian students to attend boarding schools over the next 20 years (Australian Social Inclusion Board, 2009). There is also an expansion of scholarships by the government through the Indigenous Youth Leadership Program, to support indigenous students who attend high school and university through boarding fees and tuition funding. 362 students received the scholarships under this program in 2009, which is expected to rise to 800 this year. In Sport Chance Program, the government has so far committed to support sport and recreational activities to engage Indigenous students better especially those who are anticipated for not completing school in improving employment, training and educational outcomes(MCEETYA, 2006). There are over 50 sport academies across schools in NSW, SA, Queensland, WA, Victoria and the NT where the government supports secondary students through five engagement strategy projects. There is also Indigenous Youth Mobility Program which provides access to post-secondary options like University and Apprenticeships for students between age 16 and 24 years old from rural and remote areas. They are provided with independent accommodation, mentoring and other support. 28.9 million dollars has been provided by the government to build new boarding facilities in the Northern Territory. This is in conjunction with Indigenous Land Corporation which is the capital contributor of 15million dollars. The facilities will benefit students from Year 8 to Year 12 to ensure they continue their schooling (Australian Social Inclusion Board, 2010). Youth Challenge Australia (YCA) is a non-profit organization which has also supported Indigenous people education. YCA has been working closely with community groups and schools especially in West Arnhem and Central Australia to improve access and quality to education. YCA sends out young Australians to remote and indigenous communities within Australia to tutor students in those communities. The Council of Australian Government (COAG) has agreed to close the gap between non-Indigenous and Indigenous Australians. It has provided Indigenous Supplementary Assistance (ISA) to ensure that Indigenous children are delivered with high-quality educational outcome. Calculation of ISA is done by using a formula that takes into account campus location remoteness and level of schooling. The availability of funds enables schools and education authority to be flexible in developing strategies that respond better Indigenous students’ individual needs. According to ABS 2006 report, changes in labour force and application of new work practices lead to a major change in composition of the Australian labour force (MCEETYA, 2009). Many occupations require high standards of numeracy and literacy skills. For people to be seen to be capable to participate in the modern society fully, and be employed, they need to have high standards of numeracy and literacy skills. It is therefore important to increase high levels of numeracy and literacy skills of Indigenous Australians to help them gain employment that is meaningful as well as participate in other activities in the community. ABS has used numeracy and literacy assessments to measure the ability to understand and use information from brochures, magazines and newspapers, and the ability to have skills and knowledge to manage and respond effectively to mathematical demands. According to the survey report, young age groups are more likely to have a higher standard of numeracy and literacy skills. Females are more likely to have higher standards of literacy skills than men while males are more likely to have higher numeracy skills than females (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2006). The Australian Government also provides resources for children in their early years of development to provide long-term benefits both to them and the community as a whole. Results of early childhood development mark the children welfare and can predict the future human capital and future health. Australian Early Development Index (AEDI) measures population of children’s development as they join school. Being a version of Canadian Early Development Instrument, it was development to respond to increase interest of communities in knowing how their children are developing. For the first time AEDI was collected in 2009 nationwide concentrating on early childhood development areas like language and cognitive skills, physical health and wellbeing, emotional maturity, communication skills, social competence and general knowledge. AEDI supports the communities in Australia by providing them with information about the development of local children in the areas discussed by the time they start school (Australian Government, 2009). Indigenous Australians who have poor access to education are those living in remote Australia. A survey reported that 1,187 indigenous communities in Australia in 2006, 1,008 of the communities are in remote Australia. According to ABS 2006, around 69,000 indigenous Australians live in remote areas of the nation. According to the Accessibility/Remoteness Index of Australia, remote or very remote areas are those that have no or little access to social interaction opportunities, services and goods. Remoteness affects school education by limiting educational services access and other resources like information technology and libraries. During wet season periods road access becomes limited for months, which affects those travelling long distances to access schools. In case internet access is available, usually it is through satellite providing dial-up services with slow internet speeds. There has not been accurate information to explain whether or not remote indigenous students have access to education. There is no data that can match school-aged student populations against services provided in Australian preschool, primary and secondary school. This data is important for government to plan education expenditure and tell whether Australia is meeting its obligations of Rights of the Child to access free compulsory and available primary education, to access secondary school and vocation education and financial assistance. The Inquiry made by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission in 1999 into rural and remote education found that over 950 young individuals at the secondary school age could not access secondary education in East Arnhem Land. However, there is no accurate data showing Indigenous students from remote Australia who undergo school training through part-time visiting teachers. Still there is no data provided on the number of students in remote Australia who have no electricity in their areas. Compared to other countries like New Zealand, South Korea, Chile and Iceland, Australia has not invested largely in educational institutions (Junankar, 2003). Over the recent years, outcomes of education of Indigenous Australians have improved. The evidence is seen in all indicators relating to participation, enrolment and achievement of Indigenous students in early childhood education and schooling (Zubrick et.al, 2006). The evidence can also be seen in the increase in Indigenous students’ representation in apprenticeships and traineeships and their growth of enrolment in universities, VET institutes and TAFE colleges. However, the incremental and slow progress has increased frustrations amongst educators, governments and Indigenous leaders. There is a continuous ‘drop out’ of many Indigenous students before or at year 10, while only few complete Year 12 and Year 11. Those who manage to complete Year 12 don’t achieve the benchmark score needed to enter into university. Regardless of their completion year, many Indigenous students leave school without being fully prepared compared to non-Indigenous students (Australian Government, 2010). Development of intervention programs specific to Indigenous students by education systems is their response to educational outcomes disparity of Indigenous and non-Indigenous. Though there has been success with some of these programs, a large population of Indigenous students cannot be able to access them, thus affecting the overall outcomes. The Indigenous population of Australians consists of young people. Those in the compulsory and post-compulsory school age and those approaching school age form almost half of the population. There is a widespread of Indigenous students across schools in urban, rural, regional and remote Australia. The majority of Indigenous students attend urban and regional schools where non-Indigenous students are the most, though a high enrolment percentage in community-based schools and remote schools are Indigenous students. The majority Indigenous students speak a one or more Indigenous language, Aboriginal English or a combination as their first language when they start school. All Indigenous students are not the same in the way they live, as they reflect the economic, social, and cultural diversities of the communities they live. The schools they attend are diversified in terms of staffing levels, resources, size, and quality of principals and teachers and their retention. A National Report to Parliament on Indigenous Education and Training showed that the proportion of preschool enrolments has risen significantly in recent years. However, almost half of eligible Indigenous children of age 4 do not enroll in preschool but some of them enroll in childcare arrangements. Limited access to education by Indigenous children affects their readiness to go to school and therefore becomes a disadvantage. Another concern is that Indigenous students at Year 3, year 5 and year 7 do not meet the national benchmarks needed in numeracy and literacy, which results to below 20 percent of the national average. This is attributed by research to the fact that acquisition of interpersonal communication skills by Indigenous students takes two years when using a new language and about seven years when using academic language. Learning basic interpersonal communication is done from preschool to Year 3, and then changes to academic language proficiency acquisition at Year 4 (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2006). The rate of students falling behind increases due to lack of second language being taught at this point. Indigenous students lose confidence and cannot achieve academic achievement in their early years and thus preventing them from catching up. In secondary school, the number of non-Indigenous students that attend is far more than their Indigenous peers. Though quality school experience is a key factor to educational participation, the most critical factor is failing to attend school. Compared to one out of ten students from non-Indigenous community three out of ten from Indigenous community dropped out of school between Years 10 and 11. This trend affects the number of possible Indigenous students who can progress successful to post-compulsory education. The National Report to Parliament on Indigenous Education and Training showed that in 2004 Indigenous students who progressed to Year 12 was 39.5 percent compared to 76.8 percent of non-Indigenous students, the best retention rate so far. In a nutshell, it is less likely for Indigenous students completing Year 12 to meet entrance to tertiary institution or achieve a Year 12 certificate. However, there is high likelihood that they can be enrolled in VET programs (MCEETYA, 2006. There is a considerable improvement on 3.3 percent Indigenous students in commencements and 2.5 percent in New Apprenticeships. However, research shows that a high number of Indigenous students are enrolled in lower level qualification of Australian Qualification Framework (Certificate I and II) compared to Indigenous students. In 2004 there was an increase from 48.6 percent to 54.7 percent from 2003 rates of completion in AGQ Certificate III and above by indigenous students. However, non-Indigenous rate was extremely with a 79.5 percent rate (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2006). All these outcomes continue limiting the life choices and post-school options of Indigenous students and thus bringing about cycles of economic and social disadvantages among generations. Education participation by Indigenous students should be supported fully by Australia to bring out positive education outcomes. ‘Learn’ as a key factor in social inclusion agenda of the nation will enable Indigenous people to participate fully and take advantage of the opportunities that come with it. The Indigenous people’s standards of living will increase and will not feel outdone by the non-Indigenous people, as equality will have been served. References Australian Government. (2009). A stronger, Fairer Australia. Common Wealth of Australia. Australian Government. (2009). Closing The Gap on Indigenous Disadvantage: the Challenge for Australia. Australian Social Inclusion Board. (2010). Social Inclusion in Australia: How Australia is Fairing. Common Wealth of Australia Australian Social Inclusion Board. (2009). A compendium of Social Inclusion Indicators. Australian Government. (2010). Social inclusion). Canberra: Australian Social Inclusion Board. Retrieved on April 25, 2012 from Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. (2008). National Report to Parliament on Indigenous Education and Training, 2006. Canberra, p 151. Hayes, A., M. Gray and B. Edwards (2008). Social Inclusion: Origins, concepts and key themes, Australian Institute of Family studies, prepared for the Social Inclusion Unit, Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet Canberra. Junankar, P. (2003). Estimating the social rate of return to education for Indigenous Australians. Education Economics, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 169-192. Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs. (2006). Australian Directions in Indigenous Education 2005-2008. MCEETYA Our Children, Our Future: Achieving Improved Primary and Secondary Education Outcomes for Indigenous Students. AMP Foundations. Zubrick, S. et.al (2006). The Western Australian Aboriginal Child Health Survey: Improving the Educational Experiences of Aboriginal Children and Young People. Institutes for Child Health Research. Curtin University of Technology. Annotated Biography Junankar, P. (2003). Estimating the social rate of return to education for Indigenous Australians. Education Economics, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 169-192. The writer presents a comparison of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians estatems of social rate of return to education. The rate measures the benefits the society receives by educating its people. The writer provides a discussion of the social rate of return to education concept in relation to Indigenous Australians. He concludes that higher level of education leads to increase in the probability of finding employment and higher income. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, National Report to Parliament on Indigenous Education and Training, 2006 (2008) p 151. Among the series of annual reports to the Australian Parliament, this is the sixth. It follows the Indigenous education and training progress from preschool through to higher education and discusses key issues that form the major goals of National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Policy (AEP). Zubrick, S. et.al (2006). The Western Australian Aboriginal Child Health Survey: Improving the Educational Experiences of Aboriginal Children and Young People. Institutes for Child Health Research. Curtin University of Technology. This focuses on experiences of Aboriginal children in regard to education from the past years to date. The distribution and predominance of educational problems faced by Aboriginal students is described. The report also shows the identification of factors that influence poor performance of Aboriginal students in school. Read More