Systems Theory - Report Example

Systems Theory By Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Introduction 3 Historical Developments Related to Systems Theory 3 Current Developments Associated with Systems Theory 5 Systems Theory: Different Perspectives 7 The Concepts of Systems 8 Basic Principles of Systems 8 10 Types of Systems 11 Closed System 11 Open System 12 Isolated system 14 Control Systems 14 Types of System Responses 14 Positive response 14 Neutral response 15 Negative response 15 System Changes 15 System Stability 15 Feedback 16 Feedforward 16 Criticism on Systems Theory 17 Practical Applications of Systems Theory 17 Toward Integration 18 Engaging Complexity 18 Understanding Change 18 Relating Macro- and Micro-Levels: 19 Functioning in a Human-Made World 19 Conclusion 19 Introduction This essay presents a detailed analysis of systems theory. The systems theory is a confusing concept as it is used in different ways in different disciplines. In this scenario, different disciplines give different explanations of systems theory. This confusion arises due to the term “system” because we are unable to distinguish what system is it, whether it is a biological system, an electronic system or social system. This essay discusses the concept of systems theory from different perspectives. Basically, the systems theory was proposed in the 1928 Ludwig von Bertalanffy who was basically a biologist (Heylighen & Joslyn, 1992). The author has discussed this concept in the context of biology however with the passage of time a large number of researchers carried out research on this topic. They discussed their viewpoints in the context of different disciplines. This essay will take into consideration of different concepts associated with this theory. However, the basic purpose of this theory is to discuss the general concepts associated with this theory. This essay will also outline a brief history of systems theory, its functions and applications in various disciplines. Historical Developments Related to Systems Theory Basically, the term system is taken from Émile Durkheim’s earlier research, which presented the concept of system in the context of social systems. This term also refers to the work of Talcott Parsons to a little extent. Though, in the context of social work, the work of the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy and afterward modifications by the social psychologist Uri Bronfenbrenner have deep influence on the concept of systems thinking. In their researches, they both have studied human biological systems in the context of an ecological system. Based on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological environment and von Bertalanffy’s systems theory, the ecosystems viewpoint presents a structure that allows researchers to employ theories from diverse disciplines and areas with the intention of examining the complicated environment of human communications within a social environment (Friedman & Allen, 2010; Heylighen & Joslyn, 1992; Walonick, 1993). Since the emergence of this theory this scientific method had moved on the basis of two associated suppositions. In this scenario, one supposition is that a system could be divided into a number of sub elements with the intention that each element could be assessed as a self-governing entity and individually, and the second supposition outlines that these sub elements can be combined in a sequential structure in order to depict the entirety of the system. However, later researches had rejected both suppositions. Quite the opposite, a system is defined by the connections of its elements and the nonlinearity of those connections. Additionally, this theory was further extended by von Bertalanffy in 1951 and this extension included biological systems. In 1954, Lotfi Zadeh, an electrical engineer at Columbia University further extended it. However, they both responded in opposition to reductionism and attempted to revitalize the harmony of science. In their research the researcher focused on the characteristics of the real systems. According to their viewpoint, real systems are open to get properties, and communicate their environments, as well as they have the capability to get qualitatively fresh characteristics through materialization, which result in constant growth. In fact, instead of decreasing a system (such as the human body) to the properties of its elements and parts (such as cells or organs), systems theory pays attention on the structure of and associations among the system elements which keep them united all the way through the system. In this scenario, these specific connections between elements establish a system, which does not depend on the tangible material of the parts or elements (including all the systems such as cells, particles, transistors, people, and so on). In the same way, these principles, theories and ideas of relationships and associations lie behind a wide variety of disciplines such as chemistry, biology, physics, technology, sociology, and so on, offering a solid foundation for their union. In this scenario, some of the important theories and principles of systems theory can comprise system input, output, -environment boundary, process, state, hierarchy, information and goal-directedness (Heylighen & Joslyn, 1992; Walonick, 1993). Current Developments Associated with Systems Theory Up till now, there have been a number of developments of systems theory from diverse perspectives such as Facets of Systems Science focused on a theoretical basis and philosophy (some of the well-known philosophies are Bunge, Bahm and Laszlo). In addition, systems theory has also been used in mathematical modeling and information theory (for instance Klir and Mesarovic have carried out extensive work in this area); and practical applications. In this scenario, the mathematical systems theory emerged as a result of development of isomorphies between the other systems and models of electrical circuits. Some of the important application areas of systems theory comprise computing, engineering, management, family psychotherapy and ecology. Additionally, systems analysis, which is a unique analysis technique does not develop on the basis of systems theory, however follows systems principles to support a decision-maker to deal with a wide variety of problems such as determining, reconstructing, optimizing, and managing a system (typically a socio-technical corporation), at the same time as keeping in mind various goals, restrictions and resource limitations. In this scenario, it is aimed at specifying likely processes, in conjunction with their costs, risks, benefits. Some researchers believe that the systems theory is directly related to cybernetics, as well as with system dynamics, which are used to perform modifications in a system that is based on joined variables (for instance "world dynamics" which was presented by Club of Rome and Jay Forrester). Moreover, the systems theory also plays a significant role in a number of disciplines such as "sciences of complexity", learning self-organization and heterogeneous networks of communicating actors, as well as a number of related areas for instance, chaotic dynamics, artificial life, far-from-equilibrium thermodynamics, artificial intelligence, computer modeling and simulation and neural networks (Heylighen & Joslyn, 1992). Figure 1Systems Theory, Image Source: (Friedman & Allen, 2010) Figure 1 demonstrates the systems theory in the context of the social environment. In this diagram the system is presented within a social environment. In this scenario, different aspects of the social environment influence the system and its outputs and outcomes. As the diagram shows, the system also interacts with various other systems or collateral systems. However, there are prospects on the function and role of the system to follow standards inside the larger social environment. In this scenario, if the system fails to conform to those standards, then the system is believed to be dysfunctional (Friedman & Allen, 2010). Systems Theory: Different Perspectives Different researchers have defined the concept of systems theory from different perspectives. In fact, the term ‘system’ itself is confusing which can be used to a group of biological, social, technological or material partners working in cooperation in order to achieve a common goal. In this scenario, systems theory is used as a theoretical set of guidelines for explaining systems as conceptual organizations quite apart from material, time, nature, type and space. In fact, systems theories are linked to both epistemological and ontological observations. In this scenario, the ontological observation defines that the world is divided into “integrative levels” or “systems”. On the other hand, the epistemological observation refers to a holistic view highlighting the interaction between the systems and their components in analyzing their individual operations. In this scenario, it can be concluded that they are completely different from atomistic theories which consider objects as individual phenomena. In view of the fact that the systems theory emerged in particular from biology, thats why it is hard to recognize the operations of, such as, the sexual reproduction of flowers broaden the operations of the insects. On the other hand, the latest biology concepts are based on ecosystems (Hjorland & Nicolaisen, 2004). Though, systems theory still works as a wide variety of versions as well as is used in a number of other disciplines. Some of them are known as General Systems Theory (GST); Cybernetics, the Systems Approach and Operational Analysis. At the present, a latest version of system theory developed by Niklas Luhmann, who is the German sociologist, has been dominant. It is an admitted fact that systems theory has been playing a significant role in a number of science disciplines, such as management science, technological fields, mathematics, political science, psychology, and sociology in addition to Library and Information Science (LIS). In this scenario, library and information science has particularly adopted systems theory from computer science, and there have to this point not been any effort to make a generally integration, chronological assessment or explanation of systems theory in library and information science. Many researchers consider the systems theory as an observation that pays attention to particular areas and comparatively pays no attention to other areas. In this scenario, it is for all time vital to think about the penalty of paying no attention to particular areas. For instance, in the case of library and information science, systems viewpoint can be applied but it will disregard certain factors and the particular chronological conditions. Without a doubt, it can be productive for a number of reasons for instance collaboration and automation; however it will be achieved at the price of loosing, such as, particular knowledge in designing and implementing particular services (Hjorland & Nicolaisen, 2004). The Concepts of Systems Basic Principles of Systems (Anderson, 2012) define the following principles of the systems theory: 1. Systems do not exist in the actual world or they are not natural on the other hand they are illogical frameworks that are used to help people identify and understand the world around them. 2. One of the most basic characteristics of any system is that it has arbitrary boundaries. 3. In the real world, we define systems by establishing subjective boundaries as well as defining the components and associations principles and rules linked to that system. 4. Systems are based on different kinds of components and the nature of these components can be intangible, tangible, real or imaginary. In this scenario, their features and attributes are used to illustrate the apparent characteristics, attributes, or behavior of the components. 5. These systems make use of relational rules in order to depict the association of how the systems components communicate with each other and with the environment. In the same way the system boundaries are able to set up restrictions for how the relational rules have an effect on the system components. 6. A system is called a null system if it cannot be divided into sub components and follows no relational rules. 7. A system will be perceived as a different system if it changes any of its components, boundaries, or association rule automatically. 8. A system can have a wide variety of other systems which are known as its sub-systems. 9. If there are certain rules and observations for a certain system then it is not true that they can also be applied to a different system. 10. Internal and external differences in system parameters and rules drive systems; to be precise, create dynamic responses. 11. Indistinguishable operations and processes passing through a system boundary in different areas and directions (whether coming to the system or going from the system) can create different outputs. 12. If an association rule turns out to be a component in a system and processes on itself is known as a recursive system. In addition, different actions can be expected in recursive systems. 13. A static analysis is believed to be a temporary analysis or study of a dynamic system, and it is inadequate in effectiveness in perceiving that system. Figure 2 A system in interaction with its environment, Image Source: (Heylighen, 1998) Figure 1 demonstrates the working of a simple system in which arrows demonstrate the flow of inputs and outputs. These concepts will be discussed further in the coming sections. In this diagram a system takes input from the environment and processes it and after processing this input it returns output the same environment. This system has boundaries around it which separates them from their environments. In this scenario, the idea of boundaries is used to differentiate two kinds of systems: open systems and closed systems. These systems are discussed in the next section. In addition, it is easy to define boundaries in physical and biological systems, however defining boundaries for social system is a very difficult task (Haines Centre for Strategic Management, 2012). Types of Systems Different authors have categorized systems into different categories but normally they are divided into three types, which are discussed below: Closed System As its name indicates, these systems are closed from every side and nothing crosses the system boundaries (nothing comes in and goes outside). In other words, these systems are out-of-the-way from their surroundings and they have no connection with their environment so they do not receive any inputs or output exchanges with anything external of their boundaries. In view of the fact that the boundaries these systems are totally resistant, hence they describe the level of the system’s access. The research shows that before the emergence of systems theory, the principles of physics were based on closed systems. For instance, the law of thermodynamics purposely describes that these laws are just valid for closed systems. There is another example of closed systems and that is a watch, in which it is a comparatively independent, self-maintaining component that has small association or communication with its background. Additionally, a closed system will have a tendency to go in the direction of higher order with the intention of increasing its entropy till the time it gets a highest intensity at which point a state of equilibrium is achieved. In fact, in case of closed systems this state of equilibrium can be reached as well as preserved, in anticipation of the contribution of more energy than the energy a closed system previously have. In addition, once the closed system reaches to an equilibrium state, it turns into efficiently “permanent” and not capable to carry out any other “task” (Anderson, 2012; Tesson, 2010; Bellinger, 2005; eNotes.com, 2013; Heylighen, 1998). Figure 3 Open and Closed System, image Source: (Cusins, 1994) Open System As compared to closed systems, the boundaries of an open system can be crossed and can receive and unrestrained inputs and outputs (sometimes referred as system disturbances). In other words, these systems have the capability to communicate with their environment and other systems. One of the most commonly seen examples of open system is living organisms, which are believed to be open systems for the reason that they regularly accommodate essence from their surroundings in the forms of air and food as well as can give other material to their environment in return. In this scenario, if we talk about the example of humans, they take oxygen inside from their surroundings and breathe out carbon dioxide into their surroundings. This concept is also applied in different industries and sectors for instance a production firm makes use of raw materials and staff in order to produce products and produce completed products, goods and smog in result of this production. In addition, the concept of open system is also applied as an essential framework in business operation, for the reason that an organization performs different processes in order to transform inputs into outputs at the same time as keeping in mind that they get these inputs from the external environment and outputs are given back to this same environment. In this scenario, organizations make use of different entities for instance human resources, finances, apparatus, machines and materials as an input taken from the environment and manufacture products or deliver services. Moreover, they also use these inputs to design their sub components with the purpose of achieving their business objectives. In this scenario, these sub components are believed to be similar to cells that reside in the human body, in fact human body itself equivalent to the organization, in the same way regulatory conditions and outside marketplace are equivalent to environmental conditions and factors for instance drinking water, quality of housing, air and availability of food (Anderson, 2012; eNotes.com, 2013; Bellinger, 2005; Heylighen, 1998). Isolated system An isolated system is an open system; however it can experience changes under restricted, partial, or limited conditions. In other words, an open system can be made an isolated system if some restrictions are posed to that system (Anderson, 2012). Control Systems The systems theory provides different kinds of controlling system which are designed to compel a quantifiable limit inside a system to a preferred rate by making changes to any other system value identified to create a direct, expected reaction in the calculated value. In order to work properly a control system requires the following parameters: (Yurtseven & Buchanan, 2011; Anderson, 2012) 1. A quantifiable value 2. A preferred rate for the quantifiable value 3. A precise duration in which desired value should be achieved 4. An adaptable value which can cause direct and expected change in the measured parameter. Types of System Responses A system can generate three types of responses, which are outlined below: (Haines Centre for Strategic Management, 2012; Anderson, 2012; Websu-Kat, 2009) Positive response This kind of system behavior has a tendency to be self-controlling, intrinsically steady (Haines Centre for Strategic Management, 2012; Anderson, 2012; Websu-Kat, 2009). Neutral response This kind of behavior can be neither steady nor unbalanced, has the tendency to make “slope” modification in output, however the incline of the slope depends on the input (Haines Centre for Strategic Management, 2012; Anderson, 2012; Websu-Kat, 2009). Negative response This kind of behavior has the tendency to be unconstructive steadiness, self-destructive, intrinsically unbalanced (Haines Centre for Strategic Management, 2012; Anderson, 2012; Websu-Kat, 2009). System Changes Any change to the system can have a serious impact on the output of the system and the output of the system varies depending on the changes made to the input. However, every system allows for only limited changes and we cannot cross the limits of these changes. However, these expected changes have a tendency to press together their related measured parameters and variables, which typically bound system output. In addition, a system output can be changed using two methods, which outline two types of forcing functions: continual functions and impulse functions. In this scenario, a continual function can be periodic (recurring) or constant. On the other hand, impulse function is non-periodic (does not repeat over time) (Anderson, 2012). System Stability A system can be controlled using two methods one is open loop and other is closed loop. In this scenario, we make use of the open loop method when we know the result and it is predictable. However, this method does not offer any way to control the result regarding the given input. However, for static systems an open loop system can be a good choice for the reason that dynamic systems need a way to make the output stable using the predictable parameters. In addition, stabilizing process can be carried out using any one of the given ways: Feedback As its name indicates feedback refers to partly response returning output back into a system. In this scenario, systems can make use of both the internal or external feedback loops and they can be active or inactive. In addition, if change is made to one value in a system it will force a change in other system’s value, which will ultimately require a change in the value of the first system. This process is completed through positive and negative feedbacks. For instance, when in the process the first value has to be changed, the system demonstrates positive feedback; when beyond process the system demonstrates negative feedback. In this scenario, if the level of negative feedback is less than one it decreases oscillations and have a propensity to make stable system values. In addition, if the level of positive feedback loop is higher than one, the system parameters move back and forth or make to a boundary. Moreover, the systems use external feedback to repeatedly maintain and make corrections system output up to a preferred level (Anderson, 2012; Haines Centre for Strategic Management, 2012). Feedforward As discussed above, negative feedback control uses the values of one system aligned with other system in order to make stable a system, in this scenario feedforward method is used to determine an external impact regarding to go into and perhaps disturb the working of a system, and as a result makes and inserts an balanced change to sustain system constancy (Anderson, 2012; Haines Centre for Strategic Management, 2012). Criticism on Systems Theory Systems theory has been criticized at various levels. In theory, Luhmann’s systems theory was criticized by Habermas for paying no attention to the long-lasting function and responsibility of organizations and institutions, and as a result of social incorporation, in ‘anchoring’ systemic approaches in the educational life-worlds of their members. Due to interface of systemic and social incorporation, systemic approaches can have wicked influences, ‘colonizing’ and troublemaking the area of cultural and educational reproduction. Additionally, in their criticism Habermas also states that operation metaphors from the perspective of agents continue to be an essential clause for any social clarification. “Moreover, Luhmann’s ‘practical anti-humanism’ blinds the theory from the initiation to the potential effect of a critical public and society-wide sphere on complicated, institutional operations.” (Hjorland & Nicolaisen, 2004). Practical Applications of Systems Theory A large number of engineers and scientists make use of principles and rules of systems theory in daily life. Additionally, going through the details and working of systems theory can allow people to be grateful for the sense of the saying that “the quality of an answer depends on the quality of the question.” We can see the uses of these theories in all the areas of science and arts. There is an example of a pure economic system of supply and demand. Though, this system is believed to be a self-stabilizing positive system but it initiates a wide variety of artificial components for instance monetary, banking and tax systems. In this scenario, it gives birth to a new system that might or might not stay self-stabilized (Anderson, 2012). In their paper, (Chen & Stroup, 1993) declare a systems theory a mixture of various disciplines such as science and mathematics. Basically, (Chen & Stroup, 1993) discuss the role of systems theory as a supporter in science education. According to their viewpoint, systems theory is the most appropriate contender of which we are aware, able to leading the science education improvement endeavor. In this scenario, they discuss a number of strengths of systems theory that make it a strongest candidate as an approach to science education. Some of the strengths of systems theory are outlined below: (Chen & Stroup, 1993) Toward Integration Systems theory is based on an excellent set of influential principles and ideas that science students and researchers can employ to put together as well as build their understanding in the areas of life, physical engineering, and social science (Chen & Stroup, 1993). Engaging Complexity Everyday environment in which the students live is surrounded by a number of complex factors. In the past, science education has dealt with these complex factors by supporting set of courses developed upon excessively basic frameworks and activities. In this scenario, systems theory presents a wide variety of tools for dynamically engaging complex factors. Thus, it gives an opportunity of filling the gap between the world of science education and world of the learner (Chen & Stroup, 1993). Understanding Change The research has shown that traditional science education has taken into consideration the rote and a static sequence on the other hand the actual world is practiced as dynamic. Hence, to disregard the impact of change in the end is to offer an image that is separated from actuality. In this scenario, the systems theory presents a wide variety of logical tools for science education and learners to develop knowledge and understanding based on dynamics (Chen & Stroup, 1993). Relating Macro- and Micro-Levels: It is an admitted fact that a mathematical explanation needs the capability of moving between the micro and macro levels for the reason that these levels work jointly. In addition, a perception based on the two levels must act as a go-between. In this scenario, systems theory allows science learners to open the balancing association between these levels of study (Chen & Stroup, 1993). Functioning in a Human-Made World Without a doubt, humans have the distinctive nature of negotiating and articulating their associations in the real world. For instance, the arts, together with the technological arts, are the obvious examples of this skill. Hence, recent curriculum proposals are seriously taking into consideration this aspect, by paying a great deal more attention on science, technology, and society (STS) as an attempt to put this distinctive human characteristic at the center of science education. In this scenario, systems theory is in an exclusive place to offer an effective theoretical base for technology, science and society curricula (Chen & Stroup, 1993). Conclusion This essay has discussed the concept of systems theory in a detailed way. The systems theory was proposed in the 1928 Ludwig von Bertalanffy who was basically a biologist. The term system is taken from Émile Durkheim’s earlier research, which presented the concept of system in the context of social systems. This term also refers to the work of Talcott Parsons to a little extent. Though, in the context of social work, the work of the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy and afterward modifications by the social psychologist Uri Bronfenbrenner have deep influence on the concept of systems thinking. The concept of system is confusing and different researchers have used this concept in different contexts. This essay has discussed a number of characteristics of a system. However, a system consists of a set of related components which work in cooperation in order to complete a task. In addition, it depends on the context in which system will be used. For instance, in business environment a system can be different from a biological system. This paper has discussed a number of aspects associated with systems. This paper has discussed the perspectives of different authors regarding systems theory. This theory plays a significant role in all the disciplines of sciences, computer sciences, and social sciences. This theory is widely used in a number of areas. This essay has also discussed the applications of systems theory. References Anderson, D., 2012. Systems Theory. [Online] Available at: http://www.simpleliberty.org/essays/systems_theory.htm [Accessed 15 January 2013]. Bellinger, G., 2005. Systems. [Online] Available at: http://www.systems-thinking.org/systems/systems.htm [Accessed 13 Jauary 2013]. Chen, D. & Stroup, W.t., 1993. General System Theory: Toward a Conceptual Framework for Science and Technology Education for All. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 2(3), pp.447-59. Cusins, P., 1994. Understanding Quality through Systems Thinking. The TQM Magazine, 6(5), pp.19-27. eNotes.com, 2013. Open and Closed Systems. 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