Asbestos Exposure In Buildings - Essay Example

? PART Asbestos is a pale-colored, fibrous mineral formation with a storied history. It is perhaps the fact that it was once so popular as a building material that colors our current sense of urgency regarding its toxicity. Asbestos was known to the ancient world, named in a variety of sources as a material useful for lamp wick's, fireproof clothing, and in buildings as a source for fireproof curtains. (Alleman & Mossman, 1997), (Competition Commission, 1975) prior to the 19th century asbestos boom, the mineral had a minor utility in household items, although Peter the Great did maintain a factory for the production of asbestos products. (Competition Commission, 1975) its use in construction during the 19th century was primarily limited to Chrysotile fibres intended for insulation purposes. CASE STUDY: When people first meet Robert Hamilton, they would be forgiven for questioning whether this man is terminally ill. He has an amazing spirit, a lust for life and a great sense of humour. It is this positive attitude which helps Robert get through some of his darkest times since his diagnosis with mesothelioma in July 2006. Mesothelioma is a terminal cancer of the lungs caused by exposure to asbestos fibres. Robert, of Polmont, Falkirk Central Region, worked as an assistant foreman at I.C.I. in Grangemouth for 28 years and although he didn't handle the asbestos himself, he was exposed to the fibres everyday in his work place during the maintenance and refurbishment works going on around him - the entire building and all the pipes were insulated with deadly asbestos. A key part of Robert's job was directing maintenance workers throughout the I.C.I. building to where work was needed in repairing or replacing the asbestos cladding and lagging. "When the boys put the lagging on, the dust would go everywhere. You could feel the dust in your throat and we used to go for a couple of pints after work to wash the dust out! "Nobody told us anything about asbestos. The staff were given different items of protective clothing for other chemicals that they worked with, but not for asbestos." Robert Hamilton, now aged 66 years, is supporting the Health and Safety Executive (HSE)'s national campaign "Asbestos - the Hidden Killer". The campaign aims to tackle the rising number of asbestos-related deaths by educating tradesmen about the risks they face. Any building built or refurbished before 2000 could contain asbestos. It is estimated that around 500,000 workplace buildings contain asbestos and many more domestic premises could contain it. The first symptom Robert experienced was a chesty cough which he presumed he had picked up through the air conditioning on holiday. The chest infection didn't clear and his GP went on to diagnose pneumonia and then TB, for which Robert received six months of treatment. "It took a year before I was correctly diagnosed with mesothelioma. On diagnosis they gave me six to nine months to live. It does knock the breathe out of you when you are diagnosed. "It takes a while to sink in, it's as if you are talking about someone else. A lot of crying goes on and asking 'Why me - what have I done to deserve it?' "Telling the family was devastating and my wife is very scared at being left on her own." Mesothelioma can take anywhere from 15 to 60 years before it becomes active and starts attacking the external lining of the lungs. The majority of sufferers die within one or two years of being diagnosed. Robert has lived with this debilitating disease for over three years now. There is no cure for mesothelioma - only treatment to alleviate the symptoms. He has endured three courses of chemotherapy, the latest being in March this year and he had major surgery to remove a lung; and has tried radium treatment. It took Robert a long time to recover from his surgery and during this time he has had a stroke and suffered from depression. Living daily with mesothelioma has had a huge effect on Robert's life he explained: "The life that you know is gone. I can't walk for more than 20 minutes and I easily become breathless when I do something energetic, I can't swim anymore and I struggle to walk up the steps in the football stand now when I go to watch Falkirk play." Robert used to live a very full and active life, spending time with family and friends. He used to volunteer as a coach driver for several charities and was an officer with the Boys Brigade for 25 years. Robert now takes life day by day and explains how he copes and manages to look on the bright side of life: "There are lots of things I took for granted that I used to be able to do, but now I just can't. But you've got to put a face on. You can't go and lie in a wee corner, you've got to be positive and get on with things "Although I do say to some of my close friends that it's going to get me one day. "Now that I've had chemo my hair grows straight up! You've got to laugh; otherwise you'd sit there crying all the time." (Health and Safety Executive, 2012) Robert's story is intended to alert modern tradesmen to the dangers of working with asbestos. He also wishes to remind them to employ protective equipment in any situation involving contact with asbestos. Proper training is essential. Presently, there are still reports that attribute Asbestos-related disease to approximately 4,000 deaths per year. (Health and Safety Executive, 2012) Six different mineral types exist from which asbestos can be derived. Characteristics of the mineral include long chains of oxygenated silicon that form fibrous structures of potential use in construction. The exact behavior of the minerals; and delineation between the six types is dependent upon additional elemental components; calcium, magnesium or the presence of iron. (Alleman & Mossman, 1997) Few doubt that Asbestos poses an occupational and environmental hazard of disturbing potential. Asbestos has been linked to over 200,000 deaths in the United States,( La Dou, et al. 2001) and it is possible to project millions more deaths worldwide; based on the prognosis of observed incidences of lung cancer. (Lilienfeld et al. 1988.) Among the most troubling aspects of the asbestos epidemic is the indication that all carcinogenicity and deaths linked to asbestos are entirely preventable. Safer substitutes for asbestos exist, and they have been utilized successfully in many countries around the world. ,( La Dou, et al. 2001) After the 1950s, the asbestos industry in the United Kingdom faced challenges from alternative products made in some cases from plastic or glass fibres. More restrictive regulatory requirements as a result of concerns during the 1960s relating to health risks has since seriously contracted the market for asbestos products in the United Kingdom. (Competition Commission, 1975) For decades, health-related suspicions as a result of exposure to asbestos and the availability of certain safer alternative materials have led an increasing number of countries to eliminate the importation and use of asbestos. The United States has engaged in a sharp reduction in the use of asbestos. (LaDou, 2001) Asbestos has been banned by most countries in Europe, and also Saudi Arabia. And by 1998, the European Union passed legislation banning future use of asbestos, and has put forth regulations to govern the safety of workers employed in the removal of asbestos from older buildings. Special training is mandated for laborers engaged in removal or demolition operations for buildings containing Chrysotile. (Publication Office of the European Union, 2010) The severity of the health consequences resulting from the use of asbestos as a construction component in modern industry have been amply documented in the international scientific literature. The question is simply how much is too much. Still, a burden of illness and mortality among asbestos workers in mining efforts, heavy industry and construction is all but undeniable, even going back decades. (Doll, 1955) It is the great resiliency of asbestos that also creates a danger; the fibres are fireproof, may be stronger than steel, and can penetrate living tissue where their prolonged presence may result in cancers. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, fibres between 0.5 to 1.5 micrometers are respirable by humans, are able to reach the respiratory zone of the lungs, and thus pose a health hazard. (Berman et al, 2003) It is for this reason that suspicion and restriction of the material is prevalent throughout much of the industrialized world. Many countries criminalize the use of the substance, especially where it might come in direct contact with people. (Turner, 2012), (Alleman & Mossman, 1997) Due to the carcinogenic effects of tissue penetration, a correlation is suspected between the strongest fibre-types that exhibit the greatest risk to humans. These are known as the amphibolic varieties, and are thus the most dangerous. They may be informally known as 'brown', or 'blue' asbestos, and have been mixed with cement and utilized for insulation purposes before health dangers restricted their use. 95% of worldwide asbestos usage employed the mineral known as Chrysotile, or serpentine-asbestos. Its softness and flexibility permit the human body to degrade it more easily; making it less damaging to body tissues. Specifically, tougher amphibole fibres have a 5-fold greater carcinogenicity across multiple analyses when inhaled than Chrysotile. (Hodgson & Darnton, 2000) In the United States, 20% of shingles, pipes, and insulation layers still use this variety. (Berman et al. 2003 But the material still sees considerable use outside of the UK and US, and much modern demand for asbestos comes from Asian markets. The properties and resiliency of the substance has excited humans for centuries, but Marco Polo - upon visiting an asbestos mine in China correctly deduced that it was a type of rock, not the hair of a 'wooly lizard'. But examples such as this illustrate the ongoing human fascination with the substance. (Alleman & Mossman, 1997) Risk assessment for asbestos is important; in part for the purpose of tracing patterns of lung cancer back to a potential source. But an in-depth understanding of carcinogenicity associated with asbestos will provide insight on ways to develop safe construction techniques. An analysis on the rates of cancer with a particular type of asbestos at what particle size might enable the material to be used safely in the future. Asbestos is not some unnatural chemical invader; it is a real, natural substance. Thus is cannot be 'destroyed' in its entirety. It is worthwhile to explore methods to employ it without risk. That task is complex, asbestos exposure standards have not always exhibited consistency with risks reported in the scientific literature. (Berman & Crump, 2001) It is vital that the minimum exposure standards of environmental regulatory agencies be as accurate as possible; to be protective of the populace. While it is generally accepted that amphibole fibres yield a greater risk for cancer, the exact estimates vary from 5-fold, to 50-fold. Some of the discrepancy may be due to differing toxicity parameters resulting from animal studies, or deviations based on calculations used to determine average exposure compared with severity of exposure. This creates a challenge in the standardization of exposure levels to be mandated by government for use in construction. (Hodgson & Darnton, 2000) Other researchers believe that the risk levels do not differ in a statistically relevant way between different asbestos varieties, (amphibole, vs. Chrysotile) There is little doubt that asbestos fibres do entail considerable carcinogenic risk; not only for lung cancer, but also malignant mesothelioma. The disagreement concerning the exact nature of the risk posed by how much of which subtype does not fundamentally change the debate. The question becomes one of thresholds and standards. The earliest initial attempt to project cancer from asbestos exposure is attributed to a 1978 study. The objective was to quantify the proportion of cancers occupationally induced by industry and construction efforts utilizing asbestos. (Gough, 1984) But similar to other studies, there remains uncertainty concerning the exact tendencies of what asbestos levels to inflict what form of cancer. More recent studies document that even the strictest exposure limits, 0.1 fibre per millimeter of air can be associated with lifetime risks of 5/1000 for lung cancer. Regardless of whether the fibres are 0.5 to 1.5 micrometers the risk is real. (LaDou et al, 2001) Industries manufacturing health-hazardous products may survive stringent standards in the industrialized world by increasing sales to developing countries. In these regions, exposure risk is likely to be far higher; with nearly epidemic exposure rates possible amongst the work force. (Giannasi & Thebaud-Mony, 1997), (Izmerov et al, 1998) For this reason, there is considerable support for an international ban on asbestos. This juggling action has shifted the problem, rather than permitted the elimination of the health risks. The asbestos industry still retains influence throughout the world. Even in the United States, the asbestos industry was able to overturn a 1992 mandate for the phasing out of asbestos by a legal technicality. (LaDoe et al, 2001) Asbestos-exporting countries, including Canada and Russia have developed powerful business interests in the more recently industrializing nations. Conditions of current asbestos presence in developing countries now simulate those that existed in the industrialized countries before the health risks were discovered. Despite the influence of these business interests, the exporters are certainly not immune themselves. A study of women inhabiting communities in Canadian asbestos mining areas discovered a 7-fold increase in the rate of fatality from pleural cancer.(Camus & Meek, 1998) These women were not miners. Areas of extensive industrial operations involving asbestos have yielded a startling increase in morbidity. Some exposure appears to be inevitable even with the most stringent workplace standards. A discussion of pleural cancers would benefit by a description of mesothelioma. Malignant mesothelioma is a normally rare type of cancer that occurs in the thin layer of cells lining the body's internal organs, called the mesothelium. There are three recognized types of mesothelioma. Pleural mesothelioma is the most commonly occurring form of the disease. Pleural forms constitute approximately 70% of cases, which occurs in the lining of the lung called the pleura. Peritoneal mesothelioma afflicts the lining of the abdominal cavity, known as the peritoneum and pericardial mesothelioma originates in the pericardium, which lines the heart. (Mesothelioma.com, 2012) Individuals may be at risk to develop mesothelioma due to asbestos exposure in the workplace or at home. Mesothelioma is caused by exposure to asbestos and the inhalation of asbestos fibre/particles. Typically, mesothelioma symptoms will not occur in an individual exposed to asbestos until years after the fact of exposure. Those with a past asbestos exposure history experiencing symptoms should consult a physician with experience in accurately diagnosing mesothelioma. Early diagnosis is critical. At earlier stages of mesothelioma progression, various treatment options are available that will lead to a better prognosis. (Mesothelioma.com, 2012) In Summary: a. While asbestos has been used since ancient times, for more than 50 years there have been suspicions concerning the risk of carcinogenicity from inhalation of asbestos fibres. b. Different researchers have given different estimates concerning the risk of what number of fibres of a particular concentration, but there is abundant evidence that the fibres cause cancer. c. The most common form of asbestos is Chrysotile, which is less physically resilient. The more resilient fibres with higher concentrations of iron or magnesium carry a greater risk of cancer. d. Asbestos leads to different diseases depending upon the severity of concentration, asbestosis at higher levels. Mesothelioma can result from long exposure to low levels of airborne fibres. e. Asbestos is still useful in heavy industrial operations requiring resistance to extreme heat, but it is becoming increasingly scarce for residential use. PART 2 For construction purposes, asbestos exhibits considerable resistance to heat and deterioration due to its resiliency and as a result has historically been utilized for a range of commercial and industrial purposes. Instead of disintegrating into dust when crushed, asbestos simply separates into millions of fine, sometimes microscopic fibres during manufacturing. (Asbestos and Lead Management Program, 1997) Large quantities of asbestos linger due to the demands of past construction methods in thousands of schools and residential areas, in addition to commercial buildings in the industrialized world, and are now accumulating in thousands of communities in developing countries. Due to the fact that many cancers are slow-developing diseases, and given estimations of morbidity rates based upon levels of exposure, researchers have been able to project future deaths from asbestos exposure out to many years in the future. (Lilienfeld. et al, 1988). Such as projections that Western European deaths from exposure will increase from 5,000 in 1998, to 9,000 by the year 2018. (Peto et al. 1999) Every year in the U.S. for instance, 2,500 to 3,000 people are diagnosed with mesothelioma, due to these long latency periods, many such victims suffered exposure to asbestos decades ago. (Finley, 2011) Even in more modern times, there are other products that still contain asbestos risks. Finley describes a recent study that issued a warning that hundreds of consumer products contain mesothelioma-causing tremolite; another form of asbestos-mineral. Another way to assess the mesothelioma risk involved an investigation into the exposure-response relationship in two high-risk environments: the Thetford Chrysotile mine in Canada, such as the ones mentioned above, and the vermiculite mine in Libby, Montana. For workers under these conditions, the lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) for mesothelioma was 35-73 fibres per cubic centimeter (f/cc) per year. (Finley, 2011) By employing estimates of airborne tremolite asbestos concentrations connected to the usage of products and buildings containing tremolite, researchers then made calculations concerning the levels of exposure in other environments. Career auto mechanics can be exposed to asbestos-containing products during work on brakes, transmissions, and engine components. Research projects an estimated exposure level of 0.028 f/cc per year. Consumers who regularly purchase vermiculite-containing gardening products suffer an exposure risk of 0.034 f/cc of tremolite per year. (Finley, 2011) These levels also include remediation/removal actions concerning asbestos. Complicating the matter of asbestos usage and replacement as a building material are the risk factors - not only in the long-term consequences of residential exposure, but also the issue of removing asbestos from older buildings. Finley describes additional risks from homeowner removal of Zonolite insulation. This yields probable exposures of homeowners to levels equal to 0.0002 f/cc of tremolite each year. (Finley, 2011) While the morbidity numbers are small compared to the mesothelioma risk to asbestos miners, the Finley study warns that there are still hundreds of products and building supplies that contain Chrysotile and talc-containing consumer products on the market. The more of these products a consumer utilizes on a frequent basis, the higher the exposure to the tremolite asbestos variant and the higher the lifetime risk of health issues, such as mesothelioma and lung cancers. There is abundant evidence presented above concerning health dangers from inhalation of Asbestos fibres, and it is reasonable to conclude that while a single fibre may not cause cancer, in light of the above studies, and the considerable research on the subject, it is reasonable to conclude that there is no known safe exposure. Where disagreement exists concerning the fibre size that may result in carcinogenicity, and uncertainty regarding the numbers thereof, the only truly safe standard would be none at all. The risks rise as exposure increases. (American Lung Association Fact Sheet, 2010). The amount of time between exposure and the first signs of disease can be measured in decades. This factor makes studies performed decades ago potentially still relevant, given future morbidity projections. However, it may be premature to say that no asbestos should ever be used in construction anywhere ever; it is hardly safe for instance, to allow unshielded persons to handle uranium, but it still has its uses. It is worthwhile to explore the question of safe utilization of asbestos minerals. While alternatives are possible, asbestos is still very useful for industrial processes that require specialist materials that exhibit tolerance to extremely high temperatures. It is also useful for applications where high friction is involved. (Competition commission, 1975) Replacement will take time; as the utilization of Asbestos is widespread in construction efforts throughout the decades. Until the 1970's most building industries used asbestos in such materials as: acoustic insulation, thermal system insulation, floor and ceiling tiles, miscellaneous floor coverings, counter tops, and types of shingles and siding (Asbestos and Lead Management Program, 1997). As mentioned above, a variety of consumer goods that benefit from heat/fire resistance may contain asbestos. Public buildings often contain Friable asbestos, 20% in the United States as of the early 1990's. (Gaensler, 1992). Even if those levels change, the fact that they did exist in the past creates an exposure risk; which implies a certain level of contamination that will lead to future diseases. To be specific, Friable asbestos are materials that easily release asbestos fibres into the air when subjected to pressure. Non-friable varieties have asbestos contained in a seal that binds particles in a stable mesh to prevent their release. Other sealing methods include binding asbestos into cement, vinyl, or resins. Non-friable materials can still pose a risk if the mesh is damaged or stripped in some way. Nuclepore filter technology can be useful in the determination of airborne concentration of fibres; often in offices and industrial buildings. (Altree-williams & Preston, 1985) The discovery of environmental asbestos fibres and particulates in the course of autopsies has increased awareness concerning asbestos exposure in buildings. Since asbestosis results from high levels of exposure, some building occupants may dismiss the risks. While respiratory asbestosis occurs as a result of higher levels of exposure, even faint amounts of fibres can cause mesothelioma; amounts typical of household conditions. Presently, there is little risk of the asbestosis of the past; dependent upon the exposure doses in the higher ranges. It was largely a disappearing disease by the 1990's; and that illness in particular is of almost no concern as a factor in modern buildings. (Gaensler, 1992) Gaensler's study also strengthens the premise that Different pathologies can be associated with different levels of exposure. Gaensler's Epidemiologic data lists among the resulting diseases alveolar inflammation, fibrogenesis in addition to the respiratory carcinogenesis that has been described for years. But mesothelioma has been a great concern in recent years in that it has occurred with far lower household and neighborhood exposures than that found in lung cancer and asbestosis. Asbestos fibres are also a matter of growing concern due to their presence in autopsies, and demonstration of a linear correlation between exposure and lung cancer risk in occupational groups. Legislative and regulatory requirements, promotional activities of abatement companies, as well as hostile rulings in court have placed more stringent demands on asbestos and repairs on asbestos products and their manufacturer. All of it borne out of a fear of a "pandemic of mediagenic disease" (Gaensler, 1992) these fears, both legitimate and exaggerated have contributed to a sense of panic among building owners, schools, and those who insure them. Doubt exists concerning the true clinical likelihood of asbestos disease asbestos-related disease from building occupancy alone, especially using non-friable materials. Therefore, some risk estimates have been based upon extrapolation from prior data taken from higher-dose, occupation-related exposure. We know that asbestos certainly leads to disease when the fibres are actively inhaled by laborers actively working with the material, but the true disease risk from casual occupancy is less certain. Risk estimates in the United States in the Gaensler study have assumed exposure to 0.001 f/mL indicate lifetime risks for cancer ranging from approximately 2 to 20 per 1 million subjects. However, these estimate make the assumption of mixed fibre exposure. Most of the exposure occurring from casual occupancy comes from Chrysotile, which - due to its lower rigidity is considerably less toxic than the amphibole fibres. (Gaensler, 1992) After a thorough assessment of these dangers, it is worthwhile to draw comparisons between different regulatory strategies for the control of asbestos diseases for use in construction. UK law requires a certain level of risk control, with regard to asbestos and other hazardous materials. British law mandates a control limit for all types of asbestos no greater than 0.1 fibres per cm3. A Control Limit being the maximum concentration of asbestos fibres present in the air (averaged over any continuous 4 hour period) that must not be exceeded at any time during the work day. In addition, short term exposure levels must be strictly controlled to the degree that worker exposure should not exceed 0.6 fibres per cm3. (legislation.gov.uk, 2006) The United States code differs slightly from England with less reliance on hard limitations for the control of certain substances. Such limitations do exist as basic safety measures; but the United States Code contains language that permits Inspectors some leeway. Language includes powers for the Investigator to deem whether a hazardous chemical or mixture poses a threat. There are laws that can be used to penalize various businesses that are involved in the production or spread of hazardous materials, but in certain cases the Investigator can issue judgments on if an how to impose penalties. An administrator is also permitted to judge whether actions short of the maximum penalties allowable could moderate the detected risk. (United States Code, 2009) In terms of mitigating these risks there are a number of recommendations that should prove effective. The use of asbestos should be reduced where possible, but valid industrial processes are a legitimate purpose. Heavy Industries need the ability to work with a variety of dangerous substances, including acids, explosives, and to some extent radioactive agents. As mentioned above, Asbestos is useful in extremely high-temperature operations involving heavy friction. Policies should be in place to reduce its prevalence in any residential setting, or business settings where employees do not habitually don heavy protective gear. For the short-term, non-friable production methods should be employed wherever possible. These techniques are not entirely without risk, if the mesh or seal is damaged, some fibers can still be released. But for use in cement, and paneling secured between walls, the risk appears negligible. In terms of absolute banning, amphibole fibres appear to carry too great a risk to be worth the benefit, when alternatives are available. Non-friable asbestos should serve as an effective substitute in construction until technological advancement produces alternatives that are fully equivalent in terms of protection, yet also cost-effective. This method should retain structural benefits and feasibility in terms of fire resistance, while making inhalation a non-issue. In Summary: a. 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United States Code, 2009 Edition. §2605. Regulation of hazardous chemical substances and mixtures. Sec. 2605 - Regulation of hazardous chemical substances and mixtures From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov. Accessed: 1/13/2012. Read More