StudentShare
Contact Us
Sign In / Sign Up for FREE
Search
Go to advanced search...
Free

The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors - Research Paper Example

Cite this document
Summary
The paper 'The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors' focuses on evolutionary biology that is based on the interaction between phenotype and genotype. A good number of biologists have agreed that genotype changes can be altered by phenotypic changes…
Download full paper File format: .doc, available for editing
GRAB THE BEST PAPER98.4% of users find it useful
The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors
Read Text Preview

Extract of sample "The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors"

What Drives Facial Diversity in Primates? s What Drives Facial Diversity in Primates? Introduction Evolutionary biology is based on the interaction between phenotype and genotype. A good number of biologists have agreed that genotype changes can be altered by phenotypic changes. Phenotypic changes, as a result, influence organisms’ survival and reproduction. However, the relationship between genotype and phenotype changes is a very recent discovery (Jessica, Sharlene and Michael, 2012). Many qualitative and quantitative researches are still underway to identify the relationship. For a long time, the basis for facial diversity among primates has been an issue of concern among naturalists. Many researchers have resolved that social factors have the prevalent contribution in the emergence of primate facial diversity. Facial characteristics of primates are complex structures that are designed to fulfill several purposes. Primate face is made up of various phenotypes as it integrates various parts such as eyes, ears, nose, hair and patches of skin. All these organs differ in their traits and functions. These parts have different location, origin, colour, size and shape (Cartmill and Smith, 2009). The nature and shape of the elements in a primate face is to a great extent determined by social factors. In many social animals, facial traits offer an adequate source of information that is significant in social interaction. The face is used to express signs regarding primate behaviours, condition and identity. Given the role of face in social interaction, it is sensible to assume that social factors have a crucial contribution in enhancing facial diversity in primates. Facial diversity in primates is explained by the differences in characteristics, shape, colour and size expressed by different primate in the world. According to biologists, facial diversity among primates is highly contributed to by emerging social factors (Bradley & Lawler, 2011). The essay below will present some of the important social factors in driving primate facial diversity. In this essay, the author will provide evidence on the contribution of both social and ecological factors in directing diversity in primates. Pattern of Social Group Primate Species Female and her offspring Some human being and nocturnal Monogamous family Some human and small Asian ape Polyandrous family New world monkey Several female and one male Howler monkey some human geladas and langurs Multimale-Multifemale Columbus, savannas baboons and some new world monkey Fission-fusion society Chimpanzee (Dufour, Pascalis and Petit, 2006) The table above illustrates the nature of social interaction among different primates in the world. It shows the social status of different players in their social settings. From the table, it is clear that the social responsibility among male and female primates varies from one primate to another. According to the table, facial diversity is highly influenced by social setting which primates engage in. Social Behaviours Many primates spend most of their lives in specific social groups. Primate social behaviours are significantly influenced by primate social groups. The manner in which primates act, communicate, interact and socialize is to a large extent determined by social groups. Different social groups conduct their activities in different ways. This elucidates the emergence of facial diversity among different primates. The features of the face of capuchin monkey are different from the features of chimpanzee. The differences are due to the differences in their social groups. Therefore, social traits have proved to be the main driving factors of the high morphological diversity of primate faces. On the other hand, behavioral factors entail the range of behaviours exercised by primates in their social, political and economic interaction. Behavioural factors are influenced by primates’ attitudes, culture, values, authority, genetics, rapport and ethics. There are behaviours that are common among primates while others vary depending on the prevailing social setup. Behavioural factors determine the visual cue used by primates in their interactions. The table below shows phenotype variations on social behaviour among primates (Bradley and Lawler, 2011) Phenotypic Variation: Social Behavior Example Candidate Genes Example References Gregariousness, social bonding AVPR1A 80, 81, 123 Social anxiety SLC6A4 150, 133 Aggression MAOA 134 Risk aversion, novelty seeking DRD4 145, 73 Behaviors in a group are also determined by female and male philopatric in a group or a family. Female philopatric is a social system whereby female remain in the social group or family in which they were born. In this kind of social situation, male leaves the group for sexual maturity. Due to the inefficiency of male in their families and social groups, females attract males from unrelated group. Mating between social group female with unrelated male brings about a new species in the group. The new species in the group develop unique facial characteristics such as colour, shape and size. However, the new traits must rhyme with the social behaviors of their mothers’ social group. In most cases, after mating, unrelated males return back to their original social groups, thus leaving females with the responsibility of socializing with the newborn (Darwin, 2002). On the other hand, male philopatric is the situation in which males remain in the group or family in which they were born. Female in this case leaves the group for sexual maturity. As a result of this, female attracts unrelated male in the group for sexual maturity. Intergroup mating leads to the emergence of new species. However, in most cases the newborn do not mature in the male social group or family. The newborn develop with different biological traits and makeup. Despite the differences in biological and genetic makeup, the social behaviours in the new groups force the new species to develop facial characters that will make them fit in the new group. Some of biological traits, such as colour, may to some extent not change completely but there are some behavioral traits that will change. The table below shows phenotype variations on mating behaviour among primates (Bradley and Lawler, 2011) Phenotypic Variation: Mating Example Candidate Genes Example References Mate bonding AVPR1A 80 Sexual signaling Hair and Skin Pigmentation MC1R, SLC24A5, ASIP 130, 140, 142 Iris Color OCA2 30, 31, 32 Hair Growth and Texture EDAR 127 Body Odor ABCC11 61 Sperm Competition TGM4, SEMG 124, 126 Promiscuity and STD Immunity CD45 152 The combination of new biological traits developed due to intergroup sexual and social behavior, therefore, lead to the emergence of facial diversity in a group. In this case, therefore, female philopatric brings facial diversity in their original families while male philipatric spreads facial diversity in other families or social groups. Male and female philopatric may also lead to the emergence of sexual dichromatic. Sexual dichromatic is the situation in which female and male in the same species have different facial colours and facial patterns. The sexual dimorphism also alters the color pattern among different primates. The color pattern of mandrill male monkey is a clear example of sexual dimorphism. The colorful face of alpha male is also another example of sex dimorphism (Dufour, Pascalis and Petit, 2006). The table below shows the rate of philopatric sex in different social groups. Species Number of male Number of female Monkey 2 1 Wood rats 8 2 Booboo 12 4 Chimpanzee budongo 15 6 Chimpanzee taii 12 4 Red grouse 54 10 Bell miner bird 25 15 (Dufour, Pascalis and Petit, 2006). The table expounds the nature of philopatric sex among different primates. From the table, it is clear that males are dominant in philopatric sex. As a result of this, male social behaviors are the greatest contributor to facial diversity. Solitary is another social factor that contributes to primate facial diversity. Solitary is the situation where a primate opts to scavenge separately. Those primates that engage in a solitary form of living are referred to as solitary primates. Solitary is more perceptible among male primates. In this situation, males do not associate with other males in their social life. Male offspring are, therefore, excluded from a group or a family after maturity. Solitary primates are common among prosimian species. On the other hand, social primates involve primates that interact with each other in their social life. In most cases, social primates have social groups in which they engage. The behavior of a primate in such cases is influenced and directed by social structures. There is limited facial diversity in the species which capitalizes on solitary form of life compared to the social primate. This is because facial traits of social primates are in most cases influenced by their group’s social institutions and structure. Additionally, primate which lives in small groups tend to have complicated facial pattern compared to organisms living in large groups. This is due to the fact that primate in small groups tend to have cross interaction among them compared to primates who interact in big groups (Schmidt and Cohn 2001). Ecological Behavior Ecological behavior involves the primate reaction to the environment. It includes the manner in which primates adapt to a specific environment (Waal 2008). In most cases, a primate develops traits that enable them to adapt to the ecology. The new traits developed by primates are, however, influenced by social factors. The new adoptive traits facilitate an organism with selective advantage in the environment. Different organisms have unique method of surviving in different ecological situation. There is a significant facial difference between primates that live in tropical environment and those that live in cold places. The facial diversity is to some extent influenced by ecological factors. There are exceptionally distinct differences between the facial nature of the primates living in cold regions and those living in dry areas. Primates in tropical environmental conditions have bright skin colour (Hoekstra, 2006). The colour of their fur is also bright. The brightness of the skin colour enables the primates to reflect excess heat in tropical areas. Additionally, primates in tropical areas have few furs in their skin to reduce the amount of heat stored in the skin. Their skin is also tough to facilitate their survival in harsh dry environment. The tropical primates have a thin skin to aid fast elimination of the heat in their body. On the other hand, primates in cold environment have hairy skin. The hairy skin enables them to accumulate sufficient amount of heat in their body. The colour of their skin and fur is also dull to enhance storage of heat in their body. Finally, primates in cold environment have thin skin which permits adequate preservation and storage of metabolic heat in the body. In general, the two cases explain the contribution of ecological factors to primate facial diversity. Despite of the contribution of ecological behavior, the facial diversity among the two types of primates is to a great extent influenced by social structures in their habitat. The manner in which primates interact with the environment determines the modification in facial traits among the primates (Setchell, Jean and Knapp, 2006). Behavioural Factors Visual cues influence the meaning of the spoken words among primates. In some cases, visual cues influence primate brain reaction. This can be explained by the fact that new world primates have complicated brain capacity compared to old world primates. This is due to the advancement in social interaction among new world primates. Modern social developments have a significant contribution to brain development of new world primates. On the other hand, different primates use visual cues differently. The use of visual cue in most cases is socially constructed. Some visual cues used by one society can be irritating when used in another society. For example winking in some developed countries like United Kingdom is a sign of lack of respect while the same portrays affection in South Africa. The difference in the use of visual cue in different social settings therefore leads to facial diversity. The shape and nature of some facial features are shaped by the way in which visual cues are employed in different societies. Some characters commonly influenced by visual cues include the nature of the skin as well as the size of such facial features as nose. Evolutionary Factors In biology, evolution factors entail all the aspects that interfere with genetic pool in an organism. It includes all the factors that lead to the changes in the population genetic pool. These changes are brought about by new combination of alleles in the organism chromosome (Schmalhausen, 1999). The chromosome changes are highly influenced by change in evolution. Most biologists purport that facial diversity is to some extent determined by evolutionary factors. Changes in the chromosomes traits are adversely influenced by the combination of some social factors and some evolutional factors. This can be illustrated by the straightforward differences between old world primates and new world primates (McNally, 2004). To affirm the difference between old world primates and new world primates, we will compare the differences in facial traits among the new world monkey and old world monkey. To start with, a new world monkey has a flat nose while an old world monkey has down facing nose. The difference in the nature of the nose is brought about by some changes in chromosomes. The nostrils of an old world monkey are open and far apart while the nostrils of a new world monkey are open forward and closer together. The new world monkeys have three premolars. They also have relatively large molars. On the other hand, the old world monkeys have two premolars. The two premolars are specifically used to sharpen upper canine. The molar cusps of the old world monkey are sharply connected. The tympanic membrane of the new world monkey is well connected by bony ring with the external ear while the tympanic membrane of the old world monkey is connected to external ear through bony tube. The new world monkeys have prehensile tails whereas the old monkeys’ tails lack prehensile features. Conclusion In conclusion, it is relatively impractical to talk about primate facial diversity without mentioning some crucial social factors which drive facial diversity among primates. Since a very long time ago, social factors have demonstrated their absolute role in defining and directing facial diversity among primitives. Primates alter their facial characteristics to fit in certain social settings. Face has a significant role in facilitating social interaction. Primate relies mostly on their facial appearance to express their desires and will. Although other factors such as ecological, biological and evolutionary have a role in facial diversity, social factors have the most apparent role in driving facial diversity. Primates adapt differently to social factors in their areas of jurisdiction. More research is, however, needed to understand the importance of other factors in driving facial diversity among primates. On the other hand, there is also a need for more research to compare the existing relationship between all factors involved in facial diversity. References Bradley, B. J. & Lawler, R. R. (2011). Linking genetypes, ohenotypes and fitness in primate population. Evolutionary anthropology 20, 104-119. Cartmill, M. & Smith, F. (2009). The human lineage. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. Darwin, C. (2002). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Dufour, V., Pascalis, O. & Petit, O. (2006). Face processing limitation to own species in primates: A comparative study in brown capuchins, Tonkean macaques and humans. Behavioral Process 73, 107–113. Hoekstra, H. (2006). Genetics, development and evolution of adaptive pigmentation in vertebrates. Heredity 97, 222–234. McNally, E. (2004). Powerful genes: Myostatin regulation of human muscle mass. N England Journals of Medical 350:2642–2644. Jessica L., Sharlene, E and Michael E. (2012 ). Adoptive evolution of facial color patterns in neotropical primates. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Schmalhausen, I. (1999). Factors of evolution: The theory of stabilizing selection. Philadephia, PA: Blakeston. Schmidt, K. & Cohn, J. (2001). Human facial expressions as adaptations: Evolutionary questions in facial expression research. America Journals of Physical Anthropology 116, 3–24. Setchell, J., Jean, E. & Knapp, L. (2006).Signal content of red facial coloration in female mandrills (Mandrillus Sphinx). Proc. R. Soc. B 273, 2395–2400. Waal, F. (2008). Impact of social factors to facial diversity: The evolution of empathy. Annual Review of Psychology, 59: 279-300. Read More
Tags
Cite this document
  • APA
  • MLA
  • CHICAGO
(The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words, n.d.)
The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words. https://studentshare.org/biology/1597808-the-contribution-of-both-social-and-ecological-factors
(The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 Words)
The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 Words. https://studentshare.org/biology/1597808-the-contribution-of-both-social-and-ecological-factors.
“The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 Words”. https://studentshare.org/biology/1597808-the-contribution-of-both-social-and-ecological-factors.
  • Cited: 0 times

CHECK THESE SAMPLES OF The Contribution of Both Social and Ecological Factors

Understanding ecological models

cological approaches are so effective because they involve the most factors and determinants of health.... Ecological approaches are so effective because they involve the most factors and determinants of healthFor example, anti-smoking campaigns aimed at teens in South African found that teen smoking rates were linked with a lack of recreational facilities and whether or not the teen's parents smoked.... As these connected risk factors and issues have been getting worse, instead of better, new more effective strageties are required....
7 Pages (1750 words) Assignment

Poverty Risk Factors and Childhood Development

All of the studies briefly presented in this paper suggest that the anti-poverty programs as well as programs such as Head Start and No Child Left Behind, do not take sufficiently take into consideration the social and cultural consequences of poverty and instead focus on the economic and biological factors.... These studies are carefully to distinguish the biological factors that are often associated with families in low-income situations, such as low-birth weight and the social and cultural factors that exist....
3 Pages (750 words) Essay

Ecologically Sustainable Economic Development

equirements of both ecological balance and economical development must be satisfied.... It is essential to overcome the environmental pollution and its effect in aggravating the ecological situation which is a global problem (Ougolnitsky, 2009, p.... both levels have common interests and both are equally committed in conviction....
10 Pages (2500 words) Essay

Contribution of Biological and Social Influences to Human Psychological Functioning

oth the evolutionary and social constructionist approaches stomach the fact that language is social and takes place between two or more people through the process of social interaction that prescribes meaning in a language.... The paper "contribution of Biological and Social Influences to Human Psychological Functioning" states that language acquisition is predominantly influenced by socialization whereby, socialization agents teach children rules specific to their language....
6 Pages (1500 words) Essay

Ecological Collapse of Past Civilizations

Jared Diamond in his article “ecological Collapses of Past Civilizations” asserts that even recently, it seems that people.... iamond notes that the recent devastating evidence from archaeological and other disciplines demonstrates that some of the past collapses actually stemmed from ecological disasters that are similar to the current ecological suicide that human beings are risking to commit nowadays.... Even though the past societies were made up of smaller populations with less destructive technology compared to the ones we possess nowadays, the pre-industrial ecological suicides unfolded resulting in collapsing of some societies....
6 Pages (1500 words) Research Paper

The Understanding of Social Cognition

This essay "The Understanding of social Cognition" talks about the research designs, methodologies, and other commonalities that are usually employed in experimental researches.... One of the most common approaches to studying social cognition is experimental research.... Moreover, this paper will also evaluate the contributions of these experimental researches in our everyday understanding of social cognition, the way people perceive, understand and explain events and situations in the social environment....
6 Pages (1500 words) Essay

Sociocultural and Ecological Human Developmental Theories

An author of this essay "Sociocultural and ecological Human Developmental Theories" will analyze the sociocultural and ecological theories of human development.... Various theories such as psychoanalytic, cognitive, learning, and ecological theories have been advanced to explain how humans develop and continue to develop.... This paper will evaluate two major theories: a -sociocultural theory which is one of the cognitive theories and ecological theory....
6 Pages (1500 words) Term Paper

Definition of Ecologically Sustainable Development

Ecologically sustainable development is the concept that seeks to integrate short and long-term economic, social and environmental effects and values in all decision making.... he goal of ESD is to achieve development that improves the total quality of life, both now and in the future, in a way that maintains the ecological processes on which life depends.... o protect biological diversity and maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems....
8 Pages (2000 words) Case Study
sponsored ads
We use cookies to create the best experience for you. Keep on browsing if you are OK with that, or find out how to manage cookies.
Contact Us