Health and Social Care: Investigating Disease - Coursework Example

HEALTH AND SOCIAL CARE: INVESTIGATING DISEASE By School Section 1. Introduction Disease surveillance isincreasingly becoming an integral measure in determination and subsequent elimination of diseases. However, this critical prospect has, in many instances, been faced with critical challenges some of which have threatened to derail success that has so far been realized in the healthcare sector. To ensure sustainability in the healthcare sector, governmental and non-governmental organizations have often come up with strategic programs aimed at disease identification and control. Through such programs, analyses of the causative agents of various infections, and their probable vectors can be determined. However, such determinations have never been seamless, with many research initiatives being faced with technical and applicability challenges. In some cases, the possibilities of drug developments to aid in management of the disease conditions have been countered with setbacks in attainment of test organisms as has been seen in HIV and Ebola management initiatives. Notably, the world is challenged with different diseases with unique mechanisms through which they manifest. In some instances, redundancy in expression of disease symptoms is a prospect that health care individuals have to deal with. Further, it has been noted that some disease-causing organisms can cause multiple infections. In more challenging states, various diseases can manifest through similar symptoms. This makes their diagnosis and control highly challenging. Errors arising from consequent mis-diagnosis, as has been observed in many cases, are often accompanied with administration of wrong medications. Such unwarranted drug use results into possible fatality cases, and can thus pose a great challenge to the medical practice. Indeed, cases of drug resistance and drug-induced immunological reactions have been observed in a few cases involving patients allergic to the specific drugs used. In view of the above observations, it becomes important that strategies are put in place to ensure correct diagnosis of diseases, and hence promote administration of correct treatments. In this case, a comparative review of measles and aligners is entailed. 2. Measles Thus far, the measles case provides an ideal scientific success in management and subsequent eradication of viral infections. Historically, the disease is believed to have been part of mankind from as early as the 9th century. In the United States, the disease has been considered an impediment to development since 1912, a time when death rates from the highly communicable disease in the American continent were alarming. In fact, the rates of fatality from the then global crisis were estimated to be about 6000 persons in the US. In response to the health crisis though, world systems outlined strategic undertakings which were not only aimed at breaking chains of infection of the causative virus, but which could promote recovery as well (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). By 1963, the American Center for Disease Control and Prevention, among other partner institutions, managed to successfully produce the first viable measles vaccine. This was a great achievement in the attempts to contain the disease which had been a great threat to prosperity. Though instances of the infection are common in various geographical localities across the globe, the CDC currently boasts of an advanced achievement of having eradicated its prevalence within the Americans, a trend which has since been replicated in other regions of the world. Despite the achievements made so far in the fight against measles, it has faced opposition from various sects. Notably, lack of political goodwill in developing nations has greatly hampered immunization efforts. It has also been observed that logistical challenges and financial constrains have played a great role. Nevertheless, the CDC had successfully eliminated further spread of measles in America by the year 2000. Biological Basis Basically, the disease is a systemic infection which attacks the skin, immune system and the respiratory system. Its causative agent is the paramoxy virus, which belongs to the mobilivirus genus. Constitutionally, the measles virus is enclosed in a simple envelope and is made up of a negative sense single-stranded RNA as the genetic material (Duprex & Rima, 2011). The virus is highly infectious, and is mainly spread through contact with body fluids from infected persons. Such fluids include; the mucous, saliva, sputum, blood and vomited contents just to mention a few. In addition, experimental analyses have shown enhanced susceptibility in children who lose passive antibodies during their earlier stages of development; also, pregnant women and victims of malnutrition have been cited to be highly susceptible to measles. In any case, measles has been proposed to act through immune-suppression thus subjecting the patients to higher rates of secondary infections. Body Response to Measles Notably, the measles virus initiates immunological response by the body. This involves increased production of immune cells. With time, however, the immune system becomes overwhelmed, rendering it ineffective. Such immune-suppression consequently leads to increased susceptibility of the body to secondary infections and further development of the measles. In some individuals, measles cases have been associated with various complications. Such complications include; conjunctivitis and inflammation of the voice box. Further, ear inflammation and infection of airways have been observed in some individuals (Infectious Disease Society of America, 2011). In serious, but rare instances, the disease is associated with inflammation of the brain. Signs and Symptoms Normally, instances of measles infections begin with light rashes, which are resultant from infection on the skin surface. The rashes begin as reddish spots on the surfaces, which gradually develop into slight bumps (NHS Information Center, 2013). Further development sees merging of the bumps to form large boils. This development spreads from the region around the ear to the head and eventually all over the body. The development of the rashes is followed with the occurrence of fever as high as 104°Fahrenheit. This could be a result of the ATP generation from the electron transport chain, a prospect that leads to dissipation of the election potential as heat energy. The other common symptom associated with the virus is the development of a sore throat and dry cough. In this respect, it is appreciable that the measles virus resides in the mucous within the throat. As a result, it imposes it activities in the region. In a few cases, the virus migratory activities could promote development of dry cough. Further, the virus may release chemical compounds which corrode the epithelial wall promoting development of sore throat and dry couch. 3. Alzimhers Disease This is a neuro-degenerative disease that affects the brain, and has the potential to impose effects on other parts of the CNS and the PNS. The malignancy develops in a gradual, but irreversible manner, with the rather less lethal symptoms observed in earlier stages of development quickly turning into greater health concerns (Bali, et al., 2010). In many instances, the earlier symptoms observed during the developmental process of Alzimhers disease have been confused to be resulting from stressful situations and ageing. This assertion stems from the observation that the disease rapidly develops among the old, with fewer cases observed among young populations. Thus far, the etiology of the disease is poorly understood though several hypotheses have been proposed to explain this concern. Despite the many efforts that have been directed towards complete understanding of the disease, and consequent development of its control drugs, little success has been achieved. As such, Alzimhers disease remains incurable. It is hence encouraged that people should avoid pre-disposing lifestyles, with obese people and diabetic patients observed to be at higher risk of contracting the mental condition. Nevertheless, antipsychotics have been developed to manage the behavioral challenges that accompany the disease. Biological Basis As earlier noted, the disease has a poorly understood etiology. However, efforts to understand it have led to development of a wide array of hypothesis. Widely acceptable is the amyloid hypothesis. According to this proposal, it is noted that the disease results from improper deposition of extracellular B-amyloid (Mudher and Lovestone, 2002). This deposition has been observed to spur an immunological response, which consequently promotes further development and progression of the disease. From experimental setups, it has been established that the incorrect deposition of the protein results from impaired activity of B-Secretase, an enzyme which is integral in folding and consequent secretion of the protein (Bali et al., 2010). According to a different school of thought, Alzimher’s disease is as a result of improper deposition and folding of the Tau protein (Chun and Johnson, 2007). This proposal has been supported with observations in herpes simplex development, a process during which Tau protein formation is greatly impaired. Notably, herpes simplex patients are highly susceptible to Alzimher’s disease. In another prospect, the disease has been linked to improper formation and functioning of acetylcholine, an important neuro-transmitter in the functioning of the brain (Francis, et al., 1999). This neuro-transmitter linkage led to the formulation of the cholinergic hypothesis, which was one of the earliest explanations to the progression of the disease. From twin studies conducted in various parts of the world, it has been shown that the disease is not only hereditary, but can also be autonomally transferred among members of a family. Consequently, it is important for people with familial histories of the non-communicable disease to take tests and early precautionary measures which are vital in management of its rapid progression. Body Response It is widely acceptable that the Alzimher’s disease begins with the improper deposition of B-amyloid on various parts of the brain following impaired activities of secretase. Such deposition results into formation of plaques that are identifiable by the body as foreign. The plague hence initiates immunological response. The body’s immune cells express pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Through such PRRs, the body is able to recognize PAMPs and DAMPs, and consequently mount immunological response against them. Similarly, the PRRs are used to identify the plaques of amyloid and promote immunological response. Through such immunological response results inflammation which has been shown to promote memory loss. This memory loss progresses to a lethal state due to the bodys lack of elaborate mechanism to eliminate the plaque formed within the CNS. Signs and Symptoms The symptoms of Alzimher’s disease often start in rather mild states, but progressively worsen. Notably, the disease is characterized with progressive deterioration of memory, eventually leading to massive memory loss and lack of cognitive ability. Such memory loss results from impairment of motor centers of the brain due to immunological activity against plaque. In addition, the disease leads to progressive loss of muscle mass and mobility. This leads to inability of the patients to carry out light works involving motor activity. Further, Alzimher’s disease is characterized with instances of mental confusion and speech impairment. This could eventually impact on ones ability to write. Section 2 Measles and Its Distribution While various efforts have been successfully directed towards containing further spread of the measles virus in different regions across the globe, critical studies into the extents to which success has been achieved regionally points towards a critical need for further intervention procedures. Indeed, geopolitical and cultural differences have been cited to play major roles in attainment of success in the fight against the menace. In some regions, it is believed that the disease is a natural occurrence from God. As such, extremely religious persons have been opposed to vaccination programs. This has been observed in various parts of Africa, a continent where some religious groups have often opposed immunization thus effectively keeping away their children from the programs. In addition, followers of the catholic faith have often been advised against some programs, which are perceived to be birth-control mechanisms, a venture which is believed to be against biblical directions (Chen, et al, 2014). In serious instances, it has been unveiled that the financial capacity of a nation plays a critical role in ensuring good health to all citizens. As such, developed nations have the required capacity to formulate and implement treatment programs that have hence been used to combat further spread of the virus. On the contrary, people from developing states have negligible access to support and educational facilities that can enlighten them on the infection, and its health implications (Chen, 2011). As such, they are unable to access treatments in time, leading to further spread of measles. This explains the failures in combating the infection in African remote villages where access to healthcare facilities is a privilege. In such localities, most people are forced into giving birth in their homes, away from medics who can accord them advisories. Further, measles has been observed to be prevalent in regions with higher instances of immune diseases. As such, the prevalence rate in Sub-Saharan Africa remains high due to the higher cases of HIV/AIDS and leukemia in the region. Alzheimer’s disease and Its Distribution Of the many factors with which this degenerative disease has been associated, age and gender prominently feature. According to various analytical reports, the disease is more prevalent in persons above 65, especially those with a history of dementia. Age-sex relations further show that the disease is more prevalent among the feminine as compared to the masculine gender. In another perspective, the development of the disease is associable with the type of lifestyle and ethnicity adopted by different persons. For instance, it is observable that higher instances of the disease are seen among obese persons with high blood pressure and cholesterol levels (Arnáiz and Almkvist, 2003). As such, the prevalence of the disease in western cultures is higher. Racial-ethnicity studies have also shown this trend, with African-Americans having higher instances compared to their African counterparts. Further, the prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease has an emotional and mental connection. Through studies in Holland, it has been shown that the probability of one developing the disease increases with increased instances of depression. On the contrary though, instances of the disease are less common among the educated thus showing that mental activity is inversely related to Alzheimer’s disease. This is probably as a result of increased use of memory among learned persons. A Comparison of Measles and Alzheimers Disease Through critical review of the two diseases, several distinct similarities and differences come out. Firstly, it is notable that Measles is a communicable disease which is easily transferred from an infected person to an uninfected person. As such, the disease exhibits a wide array of mechanisms through which it is passed on. For instance, measles is airborne, and is hence rapidly shared among individuals sharing a room or vehicle which is poorly ventilated. In addition, the virus is easily spread through contact with body fluids from an infected person. On the contrary, Alzimher’s disease is hardly passed on from one person to another. As a result, this non-communicable disease is spread through a limited number of mechanisms, with the hereditary means being the most prominent way. In another respect, the two diseases distinctly vary in the degree of success that has been attained in managing them. While Measles has been effectively controlled in many localities through immunization programs, Alzimher’s disease remains a great challenge. In fact, there is no known mechanism of managing the latter, with only support mechanisms being instituted on patients to slow its progression. Moreover, recovery from measles is a common occurrence, with the death rate from the viral infection being a paltry 1 out of every 5,000 cases. On the contrary, probability of recovering from the neuro-degenerative infection is negligibly low. On basis of age groups affected, it is evident that measles is prevalent among children and persons with compromised immune systems. Alzimher’s disease, on the other hand, is universal with high potency of manifesting in any age group. In fact, it is genetically transferred and may hence manifest at any stage as long as the gene responsible for its expression is activated or rather unmasked. So far, efforts to control the spread of measles have been successful. The immunization programs for the virus have been commendable, with virtually all children in developed states, and a large percentage in developing nations accessing the treatment. In addition, initiatives to identify incidences of the virus have been successfully instituted. On the contrary, genetic programs aimed at helping in identification of the neuro-degenerative disease have not been equally successful. Indeed, such programs are highly costly, and hence not accessible to many. In addition, the level of public awareness on the latter is very low. In summary, early identification of cases of the above diseases is pivotal to their management and control. In fact, it is advisable that healthcare professionals be contacted for advisories on the infections. Further, it is important for healthcare professionals to direct the patients on the available support facilities. Above all, a lifestyle change is a necessary precautionary measure in avoiding a wide array of infections including the above discussed. Section 3 Measles Measles has been shown to exhibit many symptoms synonymous with other common infections such as herpes simplex. Therefore, it becomes important to differentially diagnose the disease so as to administer correct medications. Notably, measles is characterized with rashes, which begins around the ears, spreads down the head into the neck region, and eventually, all over the body. In addition, the rashes eventually fade into brownish spots. The disease can also be diagnosed using Koplik’s spots which appear on the bright red mucosal background opposite the premolar (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2005). Specific IGM antibody tests may also be conducted to ascertain presence of the measles virus. Following diagnosis, early response to the condition is important in containing further spread to uninfected persons. So far, there is no prompt treatment for the infection. Rather, its symptoms ease within 7 to 10 days. It is also encouraged that the symptoms for secondary infections that accompany the disease are effectively and timely treated. For instance, resultant pain and fever can be controlled using paracetamol and ibuprofen. Above all, immunization remains the surest way of limiting one’s susceptibility to measles. Despite the availability of the strategic control mechanism, the effectiveness of such treatments remains a challenge for various reasons. Firstly, immunological state of the body greatly determines the success, with immune-compromised individuals less likely to recover from the infection. In addition, social interaction between people facilitates further spread of the disease, rendering immunization and control strategies less successful. In addition, the infection results into secondary infections and complications which may be challenging to control. Alzheimer’s disease Alzheimer’s disease, on the other hand, is diagnosed differentially to aid in delivery of adequate support programs to ensure commendable improvement of the quality of life. Firstly, the disease is determined through critical analysis of the symptoms associated with depression. Notably, the depression observed in Alzheimers disease varies markedly from other infections, with motivational disturbances being key properties. It is also characterized with chronic traumatic encephalopathy, which involves chronic headaches and dizzy spells. Further, the state can be determined through positive test for tau tangles and neutropil threads (Wakefield, 1998). So far, there is no cure for the condition. However, various control measures have been established to ensure improved quality of life. For instance, cholinesterase inhibitors like galantamine, and NMDA receptor antagonists like menantine can be effectively used (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). In addition, it is important to control behavioral and cognitive changes associated with the disease (Alzheimer’s Disease Education and Referral Center, 2014). However, various challenges have been observed in its management. For instance, the medication used may lead to side effects such as stomach crump and headaches. Such may discourage the patients from continuing with their medication. In addition, late diagnosis may lead to recovery challenges (Waldemar, et al., 2007). Section 4 There are several preventive strategies that have been instituted to control measles. However, the levels of success of such strategies have been varied. Firstly, immunization programs have been touted as an ideal preventive measure. Through immunization programs, there has been effective control of further spread within America and among other developed nations. However, the level of success of similar programs in developing nations has been received in questionable manner, with there being little success in containing the spread of the disease in remote African localities (WHO, 2014). In addition, it is factual that the financial capacity of developing nations is questionable. This inability to support the medical program has seen many regions unable to implement the proposed medical strategies in fighting the spread of the virus. Moreover, the disease is highly transferable from one person to another. As a result, isolation of infected persons has often been instituted to combat further spread (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). However, isolation has never proved successful a strategy to be trusted. In fact, the disease takes long to manifest, a period during which it can be passed on from the carrier to a new recipient. It is also proposed that proper nutrition can be instrumental in prevention. However, vitamin A deficiency is a common occurrence thus rendering large populations susceptible. In regards to Alzheimer’s disease, early detection and consequent genetic counseling are ideal management strategies. However, the number of people with access to genetic testing facilities is negligible, especially in developing countries. As a result, management of the disease among such populations is wanting. Even in the developed nations, the procedures involved are costly hence people tend to shy away from the procedures. In addition, a change of lifestyle is instrumental in slowing progress of this neuro-degenerative disease. However, the ability of populations to accept such changes is questionable. As a result, the preventive techniques employed in combating the infections are hardly successful (Alzheimer’s Society, 2014). This creates urgent need for public education to enable them have more insight into the infections and be prepared to prevent and combat any occurrences. Bibliography Alzheimer’s Disease Education and Referral Center, 2014. About Alzheimer’s disease: treatment. National Institute on Ageing: US. [Online] Available at: [Accessed 12 January 2015]. Alzheimer’s Society, 2014. Drug treatments for Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s Society, London-UK. [Online] Available at: [Accessed 12 January 2015]. Arnáiz, E. and Almkvist, O., 2003. Neuropsychological features of mild cognitive impairment and preclinical Alzheimers disease. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica. [Online] Available at: [Accessed 12 January 2015]. Bali, J., Halima, S., Felmy, B., Goodger, Z., Zurbriggen, S. and Rajendran, L., 2010. Cellular basis of Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of Indian Academy of Neurology. 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