Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind - Assignment Example

Introduction Organizational Behavior (OB) is defined by Stephen Robbins as “a field of study that investigates the impact of individuals, groups and structures have on behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organization’s effectiveness” (1996, p. 4). From this definition it can be deduced that OB is a distinct field of study with common body of knowledge which studies three determinants of behavior: individuals, groups and structures. It also applies knowledge gained to make organizations work more effectively. Moorhead and Griffin (1995, p. 4) define OB as “study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between human behavior and the organization itself.” Another definition is given by Mills A, Mills J, Bratton and Forshaw who define OB as “study of relationship between the behavior of people in organizations and organizational (e.g. effectiveness), individual (e.g. self-esteem), and social (e.g. racial discrimination) outcomes” (2007, p. 13). However, all these authors do agree that there are three levels of analysis: individual (micro), work groups (meso) and organizational (macro) level. The goal of OB is to better understand, predict and control human behavior in organization (Aquinas 2006, p. 37). The primary concern of studying OB is psychosocial, interpersonal and behavioral dynamics in organizations and as a distinct field, it studies organizational variables such as job content, job design, organization structure, motivation,, leader behavior and power, interpersonal communication, attitude development and perception, changes processes and conflict among others and how they affect human behavior (Robbins 1996).It is also an inter-disciplinary in nature as it borrows concepts from other disciplines such as psychology, sociology and Anthropology. The aim of this paper is to discuss organizational behavior and the effects it has on organizations. History of Organizational Behavior Organizational behavior has been a process of evolution from military tactics used before industrialization to the modern human resource approach to OB. Prior to industrial revolution in the nineteenth century, military organizations dominated whereby authority of leader was supreme and unquestionable. As a result, behavioral problems were easy to deal with. During the initial stages industrialists like William C Durant, Henry Ford, Andrew Carnegie, John D Rockfeller possessed managerial qualities required to operate in this kind of climate (Aquinas 2006). However, this approach was no longer appropriate when industrialization matured. Whilst these industrialists concerned themselves with overall managerial organization to ensure their companies grew and survived, a new scientific movement emerged which concerned itself with narrower, operations perspective. However, both acknowledged that effective management was the key to organizational success. Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915) is regarded as the father of scientific management. He undertook studies at Midvale Steel Company in the 1900s to see how labor effectiveness could be improved (Aquinas, 2006). He had earlier as foreman observed different workers doing similar job in different ways and concluded that they were not working optimally. He thus set out to find out “one best way” to perform the job efficiently (p. 5). He scientifically studied each element of the job, selected and trained best workers to perform such tasks while following rules or a method of doing the job. This proved effective as productivity increased by 400% (p. 5). It also resulted in job specialization and mass production. However, the system involved close control or supervision of employees and use of incentives to improve productivity. He came up with the principles of management which determined behavior in organizations. Supervisors were also to cooperate with workers to get their input on how to improve work methods and also make sure they followed the proper method. He made a significant contribution to management as his ideas of standardization of work practices, goal setting, money as a motivator, scientific selection of workers and rest pauses or breaks during work are still relevant today as management techniques. However, he was criticized for dehumanizing workers and treating them like machines. Other significant contributors to scientific management included Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and Henry L Gantt who is famous for developing the Gantt chart which is graphic aid to planning. After the scientific management movement the Human Relations Movement was born in the 1930s to 1950s. This was in response to Taylor’s method that was accused of turning workers to machines. The movement was brain child of Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne studies conducted at Hawthorne Plant of Western Electric Company (Aquinas 2006). This was in the belief that cooperation between management and workers was essential for improving productivity. As such, workers needed to be valued by being listened to and being involved in making decisions that concerned their working conditions. In turn, this would lead to improved morale and consequently effectiveness and improved performance. The studies revealed that attention from supervisors resulted in improved performance in what was called the “Hawthorne effect” (Aquinas 2006, p.7). Managers therefore needed to treat employees well in order to attain maximum productivity. The studies also found that workers were influenced by social factors hence the behavior of an individual was determined by the group. However, these studies have been criticized for being simplistic in interpretation of morale and productivity. All in all, they played an important role in development of organizational behavior and are considered as the root for the field of OB. From the Hawthorne studies, the Human Resource approach to OB was born which recognizes the central role played by human resources in the organization. This approach stresses on growth and development of workers in the belief that they can contribute to the best of their improved abilities (Mills et al. 2007). The manager’s role in this case if facilitation and support. The contingency approach to OB on the other hand, recognizes that people act differently in different situations. As such, an analysis of each situation is required before any action is taken. Another modern approach to OB is productivity whereby productivity is the production of more outputs using the same amount of inputs. The systems approach tries to show how the interrelated parts of the organization function together to enhance effectiveness and is the context within which human behavior is acted out. These interacting components include people, tasks, technology and structure (Aquinas, 2006, p. 15; Singh 2010; Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2010). These interact with the task environment in recognition of the fact that modern organizations operate in a very dynamic economic, social, cultural and political environment. According to Mills et al (2007, p. 22) managing a successful organization depends on “how people are organized and how they relate to one another, to clients, customers and associated people.” Nature of Organizational Behavior Organization behavior is an inter-disciplinary field that studies the organization from multiple view points and involves three levels of analysis: individual, groups and organization (Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2010). Since it studies human behavior in organizations, it is imperative to define what an organization is. An organization is a collection of people working together in a division of labor towards a common purpose (Robbins 1996). As such, it is important to understand individual behavior so as to understand how groups behave and the organization as a whole since it is the individuals who make up the organization. This is based on the fact that different people have different personalities which they bring to the workplace and which influence behavior in the organization through the socialization process. OB is a distinct field of study that applies behavioral approach to management. Its inter-disciplinary nature arises from the fact that it borrows from other applied behavioral sciences such as psychology, sociology, anthropology and political science. Psychology is the study of human behavior and uses an individual as its point of analysis (Aquinas 2006, p. 12). From this discipline, OB borrows concepts from organizational psychologists such as work teams, motivation, training and development, power and leadership, job satisfaction, performance appraisal, job design and employee selection. Sociology on the other hand, is the science of society and influences the group and intergroup dynamics in study of OB. From this, OB derives group dynamics, work team designs, organization culture, theory and structure, communication, conflict and interpersonal group behavior. From social psychology OB gets to borrow the understanding of attitudes, how group activities satisfy individual needs and group decision making processes (Singh 2010). OB also borrows from anthropology which is a science of human learned behavior and mostly deals with human beings and their activities. From this discipline, organizational culture is borrowed. OB thus deals with understanding values, attitudes and behaviors of different people in different organizations and countries since national cultures do affect behavior of organizations (Hofstede & Michael 2010). It is also to be understood that organizations are places of politics hence borrowing from political science is crucial if behavior prediction is to be effective (Aquinas, 2006). OB is also applies humanistic point of view and is oriented towards organizational objectives. Significance of Organizational Behavior Understanding organizational behavior is crucial in managing workplace diversity bearing in mind that today’s organizations have mixed genders and people from different ethnic and national backgrounds due to globalization (Mills et al. 2007). It also helps to predict and control behavior so as to achieve the desired ends. It also enhances effective communication as the organization is able to devise proper structures that enhance communication at all levels. OB is also important in ensuring effective strategy implementation as it informs management about environmental changes hence quick response and adaptation to such changes. By understanding employees’ behavior, management can discern what is likely to cause resistance to change hence be efficient in making decisions and initiating and managing changes (Aquinas, 2006). Most of all, studying human behavior enables management to device motivation strategies that improve morale and consequently individual and organizational effectiveness through improved quality, productivity and performance. Theories Theories of organizational behavior according to Aquinas can be divided into two categories: internal and external (2006, p. 11). Internal theories concern factors inside a person such as thoughts, feelings and these include motivational and leadership theories while external theories are factors outside a person’s control or environmental factors and form the alternative theories of leadership and motivation. These theories try to explain what makes effective leaders, what motivates people to perform hence improving effectiveness. There are three conceptual models of OB: psychoanalytic model, social cognitive model and humanistic psychology. The psychoanalytic model tries to explain how personality is formed. For example, Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory views personality structure as comprising interrelated and conflicting concepts of id, ego and superego (Aquinas, 2006, p. 32). Id operates under pleasure principle and is based on immediate gratification of needs while ego operates on reality principle thus delayed gratification through reasoning. Superego is our conscience and provides norms for ego. If anxiety occurs, ego solves it through defense mechanisms such as denial, repression or rationalization. This helps to explain why workers behave the way they do and thus helps to improve on such behavior by understanding them. Personality can be determined by biological, cultural, social and situational factors. Theories of personality include trait theories which give prominence to biological factors such as heredity; social learning theory involving learning from observation and experience, psychoanalysis theory of Freud, and behavior type theories such as Carl Jung’s Extrovert-Introvert and the Big Five theory. These enable managers to understand employee’s behavior and take appropriate actions to enhance or discourage it hence organization behavior effectiveness. The social cognitive model acknowledges the influence of environment on behavior. It helps understand how people encode experiences and respond to different situations, how they develop expectancies such as rewards and punishment and how to transform the environment and develop rules and plans to guide behavior (Moorhead & griffin, 1995). Humanistic psychology on the other hand, offers potential for growth, creativity and spontaneity (quinoas, 2006, p. 36). It involves motivation theories such as Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Frederick Herzberg’s hygiene needs, and McClelland’s achievement motivation among others. These help to understand what motivates different workers hence devise appropriate performance management systems that would lead to organizational effectiveness and employee development. Besides personality theories, perceptions and attitudes are crucial in OB. Perception is the “process by which individuals and organizations interpret their sensory impression to give meaning to their environment” (Aquinas 2006, p. 59). Behavior is based on perception hence it is vital to understand how it influences our judgments especially in selection interviews and performance evaluation. Perception is influenced by perceiver, target and characteristics of the situation. By understanding perception, OB can be made more effective. The concept of attribution is also important as it indicates how individuals explain their behavior especially success or failure. Leadership theories also help to make OB work. These explain the various styles used by leaders in organizations and these also affect the type of organizational structure in place and consequently employee behavior. These can be autocratic, custodial, supportive, collegial or a blend of the three styles (Singh, 2010). Leadership styles also affect the organization culture although in some instances corporate culture is influenced by national culture. For example, individualism culture does not embrace teamwork and this would mean the leader is not able to use collegial style of leadership while in collectivism cultures; teamwork is the norm (Hofstede & Michael, 2010). Culture also affects people’s attitudes and perceptions hence it is important to understand organization and national culture in order to be able to manage in diversity hence OB effectiveness. Conclusion Organizational behavior is the study of human behavior within organizations. It is a multidimensional and inter-disciplinary field which borrows from psychology, sociology and anthropology. It involves analysis of the individual, groups and organizations with the goal of understanding, predicting, and controlling human behavior in organizations. It deals with issues such as personality, motivation, perception, organization culture and structure, leadership, job design among others and is grounded in theories of leadership and motivation. The ultimate goal of organizational behavior is achieving organizational effectiveness. References Aquinas, P.G (2006). Organizational Behavior: Concepts, Realities, Applications and Challenges. New Delhi: EXCEL Books. Hofstede, Geert and Michael Minkov.(2010).Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Mills, A.J., Mills, J.C., Bratton, J and Forshaw, C (2007). Organizational Behavior in a Global Context. Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press. Moorhead, G. & Griffin, R. W. (1995). Organizational behavior: Managing people and organizations .5th edition. Boston. Houghton Mifflin. Robbins, S.P (1996). Organizational Behavior. 7ed. Prentice-Hall. Singh, Kavita (2010). OB: Texts and Cases. India: Pearson Education. Wagner, J. A. & Hollenbeck, J. R. (2010). Organizational behavior: Securing competitive advantage. New York: Routledge. Read More