Contribution of Qualitative Research to Understanding of Educational Processes - Essay Example

Social World of Education A discussion of the contribution which qualitative research can make to our understanding of educational processes, with reference to the experience with gender issues in primary schooling J Contents 1. Introduction 2. Key processes and gender issues 3. Qualitative research 3.1 Research methodology 3.2 Suitability and potential of qualitative methods 4. Examples of the use and role of qualitative research 4.1 Examining the gender gap and processes of learning 4.2 Tracking processes with longitudinal studies 4.3 Observing relationships and relationship cultures 4.4 Exploring sensitive Issues 4.5 Conducting policy oriented research 4.6 Complementing quantitative methods 4.7 Promoting gender equality and enhancing gender sensitivity 5. Issues and challenges with qualitative research methods 5.1 Research findings 5.2 Issues of ethics 6. Conclusions 7. References A discussion of the contribution which qualitative research can make to our understanding of educational processes, with reference to the experience with gender issues in primary schooling 1. Introduction This discussion looks at the contribution that qualitative research can make to our understanding of educational processes in the social context of primary schooling environments. The main focus is on gender related issues such as differences in behaviour, attitudes, perspectives, and learning styles and preferences between the genders. Schooling provides a powerful mechanism for the process of education or collective socialization of children. Studying the way this process takes course through intensive research enables us to determine its characteristics, evaluate how successful we are in meeting our curriculum and other educational objectives, identify deficiencies and problems, and make improvements based on thorough understandings gained. The benefits of the use of qualitative research are also highlighted. 2. Key processes and gender issues The key social processes in educational environments are thinking, understanding, learning, studying, teaching, and interrelating. With respect to studying gender related issues in the primary school setting, all of these can show that there exist gender differences i.e. between boys and girls expressing their gender roles warranting a closer study of these social phenomena. The justification could be to prevent gender bias, stereotypes, discrimination, and so on. A study of these social processes especially requires a close examination of the phenomena of relationships within it. These relationships involve interactions mainly between students, teachers, the school management and parents. But the nature of these relationships is shaped by the context or environment and ethos within which they function i.e. the classroom and school atmosphere. For example, there are particular school rules that define these relationships, and children tend to behave differently at school than they do at home. In the latter, student behaviour is the phenomenon and the context is the classroom and school. If we distinguish between two sets of relations on the basis of gender, behavioural differences can be noted between boys and girls. These would typify behaviour associated with that gender although there could also be observed differences due to variations of the social context. In the process of learning too, there are observed gender differences. Qualitative research can help to understand these processes so that we can deal with the issues better. There is also a prevalence of stereotypes in the way boys and girls perceive different subjects and their contrasting attitudes towards them. A study of the role of gender can help to understand why certain subjects are regarded as masculine and others as feminine. Attitudes and study patterns differ between the sexes. The perceptions and attitudes formed early on can later impinge on their academic choices later in life. Gender differences and other gender related issues in a school could manifest not only whilst studying in the classroom but also whilst playing in the playground. The study of gender issues in general tends to show that demarcations are starkly defined between the sexes during primary schooling (Buzhigeeva, 2004). Gaining a better understanding of all these processes is the concern of social and education researchers. 3. Qualitative research 3.1 Research methodology Whereas numerical quantities characterize quantitative research, qualitative research is concerned with words or pictures that provide rich descriptions of people, places and conditions. The purpose of social research in education is to gain insight into this academic social world through applying a systematic procedure. In the qualitative approach, behaviour is observed and understood in its natural context rather than by setting up artificial experiments or conditions. It encompasses processes in their natural settings so as to study real live data, and with a clear identification of the precise context or surrounding circumstances. Also, the subjects of study are not selected randomly but purposively. The decision is based on who the person is, and what they may know i.e. by considering the potential of gaining valuable insight. The collection of data can be made as in grounded theory, ethnography or to an extent in action research. There is also a key difference in the way that data is then analysed. Instead of testing theories based on hypotheses, data is usually analysed inductively. The most common methods employed in data gathering in qualitative research are direct or participant observation, interviews, and information gleaned from documents. Case studies focus on trying to understand complex social phenomena through closer examination of particular cases. They are by nature both qualitative and ethnographic although some quantitative data can also be involved. The former because they deal with the interpretation of events and perceptions and the latter because they deal with people in their natural environments engaged in real activities. Narratives can provide useful historical information for qualitative inquiry too. "Stories, narratives, provide the links, connections, coherences and meanings that we need to make sense of, and to understand our perceptions and experiences of the world and of ourselves'" (Sikes, 2007) These accounts that constitute data can be from written or verbal sources from the subjects or records of observations made by the researchers themselves. They may even be in 'scientific' rather than narrative forms. 3.2 Suitability and potential of qualitative methods Interactions between different groups of people are complex phenomena, which cannot simply be broken down and quantified. Social interactions in the classroom and playground often involve non-verbal behaviour too such as expressions of feelings and emotions that may have subtle or complex meanings or relevance. This can only be observed more closely through qualitative research. 4. Examples of the use and role of qualitative research 4.1 Examining the gender gap and processes of learning Assessments are the standard means of evaluating student learning, progress and achievement in all educational systems. The results provide quantitative data that can also then be compared to other sets of results between classes and schools. It is widely believed that a gender gap exists in test results. Statistics generally show that boys lag behind girls at the early stages and only later pick up. For example, in the three core subjects at primary level, "just 51% of 11-year old boys in England reached the level expected of their age group' compared with 63% of girls" (Guardian, 2005). Whilst such statistics provide useful information, an appreciation of the underlying causes for the gender gap however requires an examination of the processes of learning using a qualitative approach. In many developing countries girls are at a disadvantage due to limited access to primary education, but in the UK, perhaps there is a greater problem of boys underachieving in schools. One suggestion of "a contributory factor to boys' underachievement is the predominance of women teachers in primary schools which has led to classroom management and teaching styles that favor girls" (Skelton, 2001). The ratio of female to male teachers can easily be ascertained from administrative data, but whether or not this explanation for the gender gap is valid or significant, two important social processes are mentioned herein that can exhibit gender differences viz. teaching strategy and learning style. Learning styles, preferences, thinking etc. may be due to neurological differences between the sexes (Peacheter). In the latter case, quantitative methods can help to understand the underlying chemical factors as qualitative methods are then only studying the outward manifestations of these differences. Regardless, gender differences are defined during the earlier stages in the children's lives at home and primary schooling through emulation of role-models, and constant reinforcement and repetition (Epstein, 1997) suggesting that gender roles are 'conditioned' by society. If there are significant observed differences in social and educational processes between the genders, this also begs the question whether there is any justification for segregation in the classroom or school, or a case for single-sex schools. And, the whole issue of gender differences could perhaps be reduced to a need for appropriate balancing between natural expressions of gender roles and achieving greater social equality. 4.2 Tracking processes with longitudinal studies Two cohorts of children were tracked through their time spent in schooling by a longitudinal, ethnographic, biographical and narrative approach in the Identity and Learning Programme (ILP). Sikes (2007) remarks, "A study of this kind provides a unique and valuable resource which shows, among other things, how learning progresses and identities (as learners) develop and, particularly given that the cohorts came from co-educational primary schools' highlights the differentiating effects of social class and gender." A number of studies, for example those by Pollard, have explored and attested to the richness of this approach. The Millennium Cohort Study (MCS) at the turn of this century is an example of a major longitudinal survey that was conducted in the UK of 19,000 babies followed through to age 6 to study their social and educational upbringing. 4.3 Observing relationships and relationship cultures The set of ethnographic methods used in education research, which are largely qualitative in nature, are detailed systematic recordings of the micro-culture in schools. They are concerned with constructing worlds based on the perspectives of the subjects. Walford (1998-2001) published a series of books on examples of educational ethnographic research, where each dealt with a particular theme. Pollard (1996) also conducted ethnographic studies, "to tell the story of the complex influence of relationships in home, playground and classroom settings" in the case of five English primary school aged pupils. In his work, the vivid portrayals of their interactions over time show "the significance of social relationships [as an influencing factor] on children's sense of identity and approach to learning". The contribution of this qualitative research is that it points out "the importance of considering pupils as individuals" as opposed to the traditional stress on external elements of curriculum, assessment and management. After a number of further longitudinal ethnographic studies for over a decade, Pollard came to a conclusion that the factor of gender is very significant in the manner in which it defines identity. (Pollard, 2008) Children often talk more openly if not naively about relationships and cultural perceptions between each other than adults do. During their conversations and interactions in the classroom and playground, there is a wealth of information that can be had for sociologists. Observing their behaviour, recording their conversations, holding informal and discussion based interviews with children and their teachers were the qualitative research methods used in a project undertaken by Debbie Epstein. The purpose was to enhance our understanding of children's relationship cultures in years 5 and 6 so as to improve teaching of relationships in PSHE lessons. The study provided "rich and varied ethnographic data" (Epstein) on how the children themselves conceive of relationships, of which hitherto little was known. "The ethnographic method adopted in the study allowed us to enter the children's social worlds." (ibid) Girls are known to be more intense in their relationships but there was significant evidence to show that at this age boys could equally be "involved in intense and serious relationships". The research also revealed the need to give more training and support to primary school teachers. 4.4 Exploring sensitive Issues Sensitive issues require much more careful treatment of data gathering. In Girls, Boys and Junior Sexualities, Emma Renold uses careful observation and extensive group interview techniques to examine "how sexuality is embedded in children's school-based cultures and gender identities" (Renold, 2005). The qualitative research provides an insightful glimpse into "the hidden worlds of young children's sexualities" (ibid). Such in-depth and sensitive information that is highly personal and based on real-life experiences could only have been explored by the qualitative methods that were employed. Only words can convey the feelings of anxieties, desires and pleasures, not quantities. The author showed for example, how "sexuality shapes children's friendships and peer relations' being a proper girl or boy involves investing in a heterosexual identity' [and that] children use gendered or sexual insults to maintain gender and sexual norms" (ibid). These kinds of studies are of interest to sociologists as well as other academics studying sensitive issues surrounding gender relationships, and policy makers who work with young children. Sexual values and attitudes towards sex related issues are at a developing stage during the primary years. Qualitative research can be used to explore the characteristics of this development. A small-scale study of 35 children in the final years of primary schooling showed that important gender differences had been formed. Boys were found to be "more interested in contraception, abortion and the mechanics of intercourse and childbirth" (Halstead, 2001) whereas girls were "more interested in relationships and more aware of the pain that could be caused by loss of children and early pregnancy". The girls responded with more detailed and serious reflections and had more realistic aspirations for family life and career, whereas the response by boys was less elaborate and also displayed insecurity in their self-image. The way that sexual identity develops in boys and girls has important implications for the provision of sex education in schools. 4.5 Conducting policy oriented research Education research is invaluable in providing information on which socio-educational policies can be based. The method that researchers use to frame policy studies prior to implementation of these policies is an important component of policymaking. There is a need for methods "that are more informative in guiding policy development and more effective in assessing the impact of policy reforms" (Heck, 2004). In this regard, such methodological concerns "are best suited to case study designs that use qualitative methods of data collection and analysis" (ibid). Whereas quantitative methods were often used exclusively in the past in conducting policy research, nowadays these are usually combined with qualitative methods because of the richness of information that can be obtained. "The focus of qualitative inquiry on understanding the meaning of events from those individuals who engage in them is unsurpassed for purposes of doing policy research" (Everhart, 1988). It is the better 'understanding' that qualitative methods provide in attempting to make sense of social behaviour and educational processes. 4.6 Complementing quantitative methods As better quality administrative data on students in the UK education system is increasingly becoming available nowadays such as student and school characteristics and their educational achievements as in the form of league tables, quantitative social research is being given a new lease of life. But despite the information being obtained from large-scale data sets that are effectively a census of individuals and educational institutions, they do still lack in richness of information. A combination therefore with survey data proves to make it more beneficial as a research resource. Whilst quantitative analysis can yield much numerical information that can be generalised, "certain questions can only be answered using qualitative data" (Hansen, 2007). This gives 'meaning' to the quantitative data that makes it more useful to policy makers. Data from the National Pupil Database (NPD) for example was used to study the gender gap with respect to student achievement (Machin, 2005). And the MCS, a longitudinal survey mentioned earlier, combined with administrative data (and quantitative analysis) was used for a range of studies. Quantitative data is thus best seen as a useful sampling frame for qualitative research (Hansen, 2007). Both methods complement each other well when 'facts and figures' are to be given proper interpretation and a depth of meaning. 4.7 Promoting gender equality and enhancing gender sensitivity Concerns of gender stereotyping, gender discrimination and gender gaps often lead to efforts at promoting greater gender equity or equality. Besides policies directed at promoting this, teacher training programmes also deal with raising awareness of gender issues. The purpose is to help teachers avoid gender bias and in perpetuating stereotypes (that they may even unconsciously be holding themselves). In short, to enable them to handle gender issues equitably, and in providing equal opportunities to both genders wherever possible. This is generally referred to as 'gender sensitivity'. An example of a study of the extent of initial training programmes addressing gender issues, and how gender equity is promoted in the classroom, was carried out by the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland in 2004. A questionnaire was used to survey 344 teachers and "the qualitative dimensions of the study suggest that teachers are generally aware of gender stereotypes in the classroom and that, despite their lack of training in gender issues, where appropriate, most attempt to challenge this type of behaviour" (Gray, 2004). In this way, qualitative research is an important tool for checking on the awareness of gender issues and pointing out biases and stereotypes, and any unintentional practices of discrimination in order to enhance gender sensitivity. 5. Issues and challenges with qualitative research methods 5.1 Research findings The validity of findings or reliability of conclusions is always an issue with any kind of research that attempts to furnish new knowledge be it qualitative or quantitative. In qualitative research however, this is more aptly described as the credibility or trustworthiness of research, and this rests on establishing information by maintaining 'chains of evidence' to identify its source. And, prior perceptions of the researcher when selecting the subjects of study for example, and during subsequent interpretation can significantly affect the research findings and must therefore be free of bias. Also, it is too easy to generalize beyond the studied sample, which can become an issue if the sample size is small. On the other hand, as Harry Wolcott (1999) maintains, one of the main problems in qualitative work is having too much data rather than not enough. But it is better to have more than an insufficient amount. The latter would result in a lack of solidity of the foundation upon which to base the findings. There may be a task of sifting through copious material to extract what is relevant and valuable but this also pays off in a more thorough understanding making it more 'grounded' in reality i.e. that it represents the wider social world accurately. Deficiencies in the quality of findings obtained from qualitative methods can also be overcome by combining with quantitative methods depending on the nature of the research and sample. Or, to put it another way, the benefits of qualitative methods and analysis are more apparent when they are used to enhance information obtained by quantitative methods by supplying 'additional findings'. These are known as methodological mixes or triangulation. 5.2 Issues of ethics Any kind of research that involves people inevitably has ethical implications too i.e. the right to know, issues of consent and privacy, and acceptability of covert methods etc. Researchers must ensure that no rights are infringed during the research because conducting case studies may be seen as being intrusive in the lives of people, and participant observation can be akin to spying in extreme cases. Adopting a 'least adult role' in relation to children to explore more sensitive gender issues, Epstein (1998) encouraged children to 'open up' to her. The children appreciated her interest in their thoughts and feelings. Whilst this allowed her to gain useful knowledge, the practice highlights a number of ethical issues, particularly about 'informed consent'. The children were found to seek her out in a number of other instances too because they could relate to her easily, especially in connection with helping with academic work. Then the subjects of research became researchers themselves because they wanted to know who she was, 'a girl or a teacher'. The major concern though was that she was "doing it [i.e. the research] with the children's knowledge and consent. But there still seems to be a level at which such knowledge and consent are hollow fictions". This is because "it is far easier to explain issues of confidentiality and the purpose of research to adults than it is to children". 9. Conclusions Analyzing social processes helps to know how things happen, and understanding the social worlds helps to know why things happen the way they do. In other words, it helps to explain why certain phenomena in our schools occur. Again, quantitative information helps to know what and how many but qualitative information enables us to interpret that information in its proper context and gain a deeper understanding of underlying causes and assumptions. Qualitative research can therefore complement quantitative methods but is best for understanding and acquiring rich detailed information. This deeper understanding can then be used to form more appropriate action, policies and reforms. With respect to gender issues in processes of primary schooling, we saw how qualitative research helps to understand how the socially defined roles of the two genders are exhibited in our schools, and its ability to "highlight gender issues and bring them into the spotlight" (UNESCO, 2005). A goal for policymakers may therefore be to cater better to student needs according to their gender, work to lessen the impact of gender differences, or promote greater gender equality. However, we also saw that if gender 'boundaries' supporting gender differences are dissolved, for example by implementing a common curriculum as in co-educational schools, the boundaries still re-emerge due to natural differences between the genders. This then highlights the nature of human society and social problems in general. Nonetheless, the role and value of qualitative research in social and educational processes has been amply demonstrated above in examining the gender gap and processes of learning, tracking processes with longitudinal studies, observing relationships and relationship cultures, exploring sensitive issues, conducting policy oriented research, complementing quantitative methods, and promoting gender equality and enhancing gender sensitivity. References BERA. 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