Knowledge Area Module as a Working Theory of Constructivism - Essay Example

The purpose of this in depth section of the KAM is to critically examine the theories supporting technology based on instructional practices aligned with the current educational system. Previously done research studies suggest that technology when used in an effective manner can become a reason for enhancement of student achievement. However, the educational system must undergo systemic change in order to fully adopt and take advantage of constructivist centered technology enhanced instructional practices. It is important that all stakeholders within the educational system understand the nature and complexity of social and cognitive constructivism and act with this knowledge in mind when integrating technology-enhanced instruction. Because of the growing dependence and importance of technology in society, technology is increasingly important in schools as it is employed for problem-solving instructional practices. The breadth portion of this Knowledge Area Module (KAM) presents a working theory of constructivism based upon instructional practices adapted to meet the technology requirements of the twenty-first century learner. There will be special emphasis on the work of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Seymour Papert. The Breadth paper emphasizes on the relationship between social and cognitive constructivism and on how it independently or collaboratively influences education. The constructivists’ theories and concepts address learning styles and academic achievement. It concludes with the suggestion that to increase productivity in terms of student achievement and productivity, an increase in feedback communication from all stakeholders in an educational system is needed. Feedback communication increase can be contributed to the use of technology infused instruction, data management and intelligent classrooms communication. In the United States and other industrialized nations, computers have become a part of mainstream life. According to Henson (2005), the 2000 U.S. Census shows that 51% of households in the United States had computers and about 41.5% of American households had access to the Internet. Computers are positioned in schools across the nation. School districts cultivate reform practices to include the integration of technology in curriculum standards. In addition, student technology standards are aligned with each grade level for students to master. Educational paradigm shifts bring new perspectives, new conceptualizations and new ways of thinking about a topic. The research studies explain the important role of technology within a constructivist centered classroom. In fact, the potential of new technologies has been generally unrealized by many educators (Mahn, 1999). "Many educators, as well as members of the general community, are naive about the ramifications of technology implementation, and proceed without a clear understanding of both the role of technology in schools and what are reasonable expectations" (Campoy, 1992, p. 17). Historical Background of Computers in Education Computers that were developed for the classroom geared to teach the traditional curriculum and basic skills often operating as a means to deliver instruction, sometimes as a supplement to the teachers’ classroom instruction, and sometimes replacing classroom instruction. Educators focused on basic skills and knowledge in the various content areas, which used programmed instruction, drill and practice exercises, and were often based on behaviorism for its instructional approaches. According to Mahn (1999), technology helps mandate accountability toward increasing standards of achievement, and the shift in educational technology from theories of learning to cognitive theories. The computer was introduced in the educational sector in the 1960s and 1970s. Early use of computers in educational settings, stemmed from behaviorist perspectives of teaching based on Skinner’s theories (Gulati, 2008). First, computer programs operating in schools were called programmed instruction (PI) and did not have a long existence in the school curriculum. Skinner first developed a “teaching machine” in which children practiced basic math facts on a machine and received immediate feedback according to the correctness of their answers. Skinner was not satisfied with his initial teaching machine because it did not have systematic instructions for guiding students towards mastery of math facts. Programmed instruction was developed in order to guide students through the steps of solving a problem much as if a tutor would guide a student. Skinner thought that programmed instruction was better because it provided students guided math instruction at their learning level (Skinner, 1966; Mahn, 1999). The mid 1970s to the mid 1980s brought more affordable personal computers. Although most programs of this time period reflected behavioral philosophies of learning and were more drill and practice oriented in nature, constructivist theories of learning were starting to penetrate how software was designed and how computers were used with learners. Papert developed the programming language LOGO that marked the introduction of constructivist theory and technology in education. According to Papert (1999), the computer language allows learners to program the computer to make designs and is based on Piagetian constructivist perspectives of learning (p.8). Until the 1980s, computing was very limited, with simple graphics and text being of the primary use. The multimedia boom of the late 1980s brought many possibilities to enrich learning within the school. Sound cards, video, CD-ROMs, laser disk players, computer graphics, animation, and virtual environments brought computing to a new level. However, the introduction of multimedia did not necessarily change the notions of how school should be conducted. Some multimedia software packages were still based on behaviorist theories, while others allowed for a nonlinear, creative approach based on cognitive constructivism principles (Brown and Lee, 2006). Computers are still being used in a variety of ways and computer software is still being created with both behaviorist and constructivist theoretical foundations of learning. Theoretical Learning Theories used in Educational Systems Systems Theory is a theoretical understanding formed in the 1950s to address the need for understanding the interrelatedness of parts of individual systems and generalization across various types of systems because of the increased complexities of the modern era. The theory was developed by scholars in a variety of disciplines who shared a concern with the lack of a unified, disciplined inquiry method to aid understanding complex ideas across disciplines (Clem and Battino, 2006). Applying the concept of systems theory to educational systems makes use of various aspects of a school, school system state and national policy towards school goals. In the case of technology-enhanced instruction, educators must adopt technology-integrated practices, state and national standards, staff development opportunities and local school access to technology aid or inhibit constructivist principles. Diffusion theory is important in the areas of technology integration and elementary education because it requires a shift or change in thinking about the social system of a school, school district, or even state and national policy, which guides educational systemic thought. Diffusion theory distributes information throughout a social system over a specific time period. The philosophy of diffusion theory includes four principles along with innovation itself, how information is communicated, time, and the nature of the social system into which the innovation is being introduced (Rogers, 1995). The author recommends educational technologists who utilize diffusion theory for three major reasons. Firstly, the educator cannot identify the reasons as to why technology tools are not adopted. Secondly, educational systems overlook technology innovations that need to be introduced and diffused into the classrooms. Thirdly, the educator develops a systematic model of adoption and diffusion. Rogers (1995) applies systems theory to how new ideas are diffused within groups of people. Rogers’ systems concepts are applied across many fields in order to create systems that promote the diffusion of new ideas along with the progress of a given system. The author applies the principles of instructional technology because of the focus of instructional technologists in assisting people in adopting new technologies. An awareness of the systems in which instructional technologists work, can help them change aspects of the systems that inhibit the adoption of a new technology and add elements to the systems that would expedite the diffusion process. Diffusion theory applies to educational systems. School systems can learn from Roger’s (1995) Systems Theory when trying to raise the level of technology integration within their school system. This theory looks at change by analyzing the elements within the system that promote and inhibit change. The author explains the role of change agents working within systems to promote systemic change. The change agents classified into adopter categories, ranging from early adopters to laggards, in terms of how they embrace or resist change. According to Rogers (1995), one’s level of innovativeness determines the adopter category he or she will belong to. The levels of innovativeness range from high to low resulting in group membership in each of the following five categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. In addition, the level of support from multiple sources affects the rate at which change happens (Rogers, 1995). Educational systems must have the appropriate level of financial, capital, and human resources to support systemic organizational change. Finally, educational systems wishing to integrate technology must have a plan that accounts for the purchasing of the appropriate hardware and software for technology resources. Read More