The Suitable Age for Second Language Acquisition - Annotated Bibliography Example

Second Language Acquisition Annotated Bibliography on ‘The Suitable Age for Second Language Acquisition” Second Language Acquisition Introduction One of the most important but widely debated topics in the academic arena is that of acquisition of a Foreign or Second language (L2) which most researchers and educationists feel has become a necessity at all levels of education. In order to meet the high standards of education, it is imperative to gain skill in a second language. In this respect, the ‘age factor’ seems to be a relative term in order to gain success on the academic front and to move forward in life. In lieu of this, there seems to be two schools of thought – while some people feel that getting children to learn a second language at an early age is much better, there are others who feel that learning a second language would prove taxing to small children. Research shows that it is quite advantageous for children to learn a second language when small because they would find it easier to pick up the nuances, phonetics and words much easier than at a later stage. On the other hand, an older school of thought discriminates children with regard to their ages as they assume that cramming small children with new thoughts and ideas would be highly stressful to them. My curiosity to learn more about this topic was kindled and hence I began my research by finding out more on the subject through journals, books and material found on the internet. I also understood the importance of this topic and this is the reason that made me choose it to carry out a study. Second Language Acquisition References 1. Stephen D. Krashen, (1981) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. The Center for Language and Linguistics, Pergamon Press Inc. Stephen D. Krashen’s book titled ‘Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning’ enlightens us on the need and importance of second language acquisition by children and the impact it has on their educational pursuits. Passing their comments on this importance subject, Brown and Hanlon and Brown Cazden and Bellugi state that the acquisition of a second language does not need any correction or rules to be imparted. In the opinion of Snow and Ferguson native speakers, are at an advantage because they are in a position to correct or modify their speech thereby helping the acquisition process. On the other hand, Krashen and Seliger, feel that ‘Conscious Language Learning’ requires error correction as well as rules so that children acquire the second language in the proper manner to enable the right linguistic generalizations. Krashen states that deliberate and conscious language learning is grounded on the Monitor Theory where acquiring a second language seems like a Monitor to the second language learner. 2. Jenifer Larson-Hall, (2007) Weighing the benefits of studying a foreign language at a younger starting age in a minimal input situation, Second Language Research 24,1 (2008); pp. 35–63. Second Language Acquisition In his study on second language learning, Hall examines the advantages and disadvantages of teaching children who are quite young. To prove his case in point, a study was carried out on Japanese children who started learning a second language when about 3 years old. In comparing them to their peers who had started their learning when they were 12years, he found that children who began learning at much younger age were much advanced in their learning process and were at a better advantage than their older peers. However, theory has it that if minimal input is used during the early language learning years, then those who begin early would not have a great advantage over their peers who begin late. In lieu of this subject, Koike and Tanaka state how huge sums of money are spent by Japanese parents for sending their children to private schools for second language learning. Butler enlightens us on this fact by telling us how the English language is made compulsory at all levels in elementary schools as they understand how important it is for students to gain success in their future endeavors. 3. Sieneke Goorhuis and Kees de Bot, (2010) “Impact of early English language teaching on L1 and L2 development in children in Dutch Schools”, International Journal on Bilingualism, Vol. 14, No: 3, Pgs. 289 – 302 In their groundbreaking study about the “Impact of early English language teaching on L1 and L2 development in children in Dutch Schools” Sieneke Goorhuis and Kees de Second Language Acquisition Bot speak about how by the early age of 4, Dutch children are encouraged to learn English. In a cohort study evaluating early English language teaching (EELT) they discovered that whether native or not, children acquired foundation skills in their learning of English. They made use of Reynell tests for language development and testing, and found that the first language (L1) was not hindered or affected in any way by the EELT program. Looking at it from a European context angle, multi- lingualism is encouraged and promoted by the European Commission as it realizes its importance of learning and enhancing ones understanding and knowledge about the culture of other countries so that a common understanding could be reached on various matters between people of various cultures around the world. However, at the same time, the Dutch society considers the early learning of the English language to pose a threat because of its high popularity among the different cultures around the globe. 4. Arturo E. Hernandez and Ping Li, (2007) Age of Acquisition: It’s Neural and Computational Mechanisms, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 133, No: 4, pgs. 638 – 650. Hernandez and Ping Li conducted an important study based on the neural and computational mechanisms related to the Age of Acquisition. According to Hernandez and Ping Li, Linguists, Cognitive scientists and Psychologists consider the ‘Age of Acquisition’ (AoA) to be a very important factor in the learning of a new language and evidence from scientific research has proved it time and again. According to them, the AoA is an important period when children easily acquire Second Language Acquisition crucial concepts and skills that have a deep and lasting impact on the learning abilities of a child. The impact of AoA is found in all linguistic domains. A good example can be seen in the early years of a child. Children who are exposed to a good sensory output in their early years, show a much better output than children who are not exposed. In such children their sensory output would invariably be impaired. Brainard & Doupe, enlighten us about the three phases of learning which include sensory, sensory motor and crystallization. They further tell us that if children are not given enough exposure during the critical learning period, then their learning would be quite slow and gradual. But if children are given the appropriate exposure during this period then, because of their constant exposure and practice, learning takes place at a very fast rate. The reason for this Brainard and Knudsen state is because all the visual input is calibrated into auditory maps making t easier for a child to learn new things. 5. Giesela Jia & Akiko Fuse, (2007) Acquisition of English Grammatical Morphology by Native Mandarin Speaking Children and Adolescents. Age – related differences. Journal of Speech language and Hearing research. • Vol. 50 • 1280–1299 • Giesela Jia & Akiko Fuse, in their five year longitudinal study involving children and adults aged between 5 and 16 years of age, on six English grammatical morphemes that included a regular and irregular past – tense, third person singular, Progressive aspect –ing, copula BE, and auxiliary DO made some interesting findings. The purpose of their Second Language Acquisition study was an attempt at gauging the level of mastery of the different morphemes and after making comparisons between the various trajectories, they identified various age- related differences. In trying to gauge their level of morphological proficiency, they made use of spontaneous speech in natural situations. The results from the study showed that different participants exhibited different levels of acquisition because of the influence of their age of arrival (AoAr) in the United States proving that earlier arrivals exhibited greater proficiency than the late arrivals. The results however did not prove differences in the acquiring of tenses because of factors that were age related. The findings of this study showed that the acquisition of a second language is not only age-related but also environmental. Wexler, a researcher, views it from a linguistic angle, and states that especially children who are monolingual with SLI have a limited learning experience as they have difficulty in connecting abstract tenses with their morphological forms. 6. David Michael Singleton & Zsolt Lengyel, (1995) The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition. Multilingual Matters. Pgs. 160 In their book titled ‘The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition’ Singleton and Lengyel tell us of a high level seminar that was conducted by the European Second Language Association (EUROSLA) on age related factors dealing with Second language acquisition. The seminar aimed at drawing together the areas that were separated from the continent so as to nurture language learning and teaching and enhance communication among various cultures. The fact that age being a related factor to the acquisition of a Second Language Acquisition new language, has always been a topic of wide debate for linguists and language researchers in both practical and theoretical circles as to when is the proper time for children to be initiated to learn a second language. According to Singleton there are some who believe that children learn a second language much faster than adults, while others believe that adults learn much faster than children. According to the ‘Consensus view’ Cook, Ellis, Harley and Long believe that early exposure to the target language in naturalistic’ situations, enable children to learn faster when considering long term outcomes. The study results from the findings show that children who get exposure to early language learning have a much better advantage over their peers who start language learning late are in High School. According to Stern and Singleton such a condition is attributed to what is called a ‘blurring effect’ that takes place by merging non- beginners and beginners together. 7. Muñoz, Carmen (2006b). The effects of age on foreign language learning: The BAF project. In Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning, Carmen Muñoz (ed.), 1–40 Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. In his empirical study in the realm of second language acquisition, Carmen Munoz has come out with facts related to age that is highlighted in his research study. The important issue that he addresses is the impact of age on learning of a second language in relation to the formulation of the ‘Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Long arguably states that the differences in age- related outcomes is greatly essential to the Second Language Acquisition construction of the L2 Theory of learning. Munoz holds the opinion that two distinct age –related advantages occur when comparing younger early learners with that of the older learners who have a much faster learning rate. Results from the findings also show that the older learner makes greater progress during the initial stages of L2 acquisition, but in the long run, younger L2 learners are much more successful as they attain the high standard of a native speaker. From these findings the results proved are that a much earlier start on L2 acquisition within naturalistic surroundings gains a better performance standard because of the association of its native-likeness. Birdsong however holds the opinion that because of the influences and interactions of the L1 on the L2 and vice versa, the languages used by a bilingual cannot be compared to the native speaker of any language. 8. Myra A. Fernandes & Cheryl Grady (2008) Experimental Aging Research, No. 34: pgs. 297 – 322. Authors Myra A. Fernandes and Cheryl Grady’s chief premise was focused on the division of attention (DA) in relation to age and the impact it had on memory and organizational strategies that were used during the period of retrieval. In this study, they made use of younger and older individuals, who were made to study a list of items that were both unrelated and categorized, that was rendered to them auditorily while under full attention and later they had to recall from mind the same list also under full attention. Second Language Acquisition The task was carried out while they were distracted by either a word or digital monitoring task. Results from the findings showed that while retrieving the words which were unrelated, the age factor did not interfere in any way with memory, whereas, when it came to words that were categorized, the group of older people suffered from a higher memory interference when comparing them to the younger group in both the DA conditions. The words in each category, in both the DA conditions were reduced for both age groups, yet, when it came to the time of total recall, the score of semantic clustering was much higher in the adults than in the younger group proving that older individuals were not so capable of making use of strategies to trigger their memory. However, the youngsters faired better during the amplified memory interference compared to the older group of individuals. 9. David Birdsong, Age and Second Language Acquisition and Processing: A Selective Overview In a study carried out by researchers David Birdsong and his group to understand the different areas of age related problems in the acquisition of L2, they observed and found that the acquisition of second language (L2) by adults was in many ways quite different when compared to younger children in the acquisition of a first language. (L1) Their study focused on various theoretical facts based on neuro-cognitive development and cognitive neurofunction that involved the acquisition of L2. Understanding the fact that residence cannot guarantee exposure to L2 usage, researchers quantify the contact that Second Language Acquisition the L2 learner has of both L1 and L2 with regard to the written and spoken modalities during their daily activities. According to D¨ornyei, Skehan and Doughty, the other variables included in this study are the level of formal training obtained with regard to learning a foreign language (L2) and the extent of exposure that a learner receives during his content courses that involve his/her working memory capacity, imitative ability, and adaptability to various strategies and styles of learning and also an awareness of a meta-linguistic concepts. Findings of this study showed that among the various experiential variables which had been examined for proficiency in L2, the AoA, was considered as the strongest and most reliable in the acquisition of L2. 10. Christian Abello- Contesse, (2008) Age and the Critical period Hypothesis. ELT Journal Volume 63/2 April 2009; Published by Oxford University Press. Christian Abello – Contesse in his study on ‘Age and the Critical period Hypothesis, highlights the ‘Age Factor’ which he feels is rather challenging as it cuts across various other social, academic and experiential variables. In the opinion of Scovel, there is a common and popular understanding that younger L2 learners are much ‘superior’ when compared to the adults. However, the larger picture is much more complex. Johnstone passes his comments on this fact stating that there are major differences which are both favorable and unfavorable too, due to the fact of other intersecting variables that come into play during the acquisition of L2 by both early Second Language Acquisition and late learners. Therefore, the Critical Period Hypothesis’ (CPH) according to Lenneberg’ is not only relevant but crucial to this study because it is considered to be the optimal period for language acquisition that ends by puberty. In Cook’s opinion, the ‘Age Factor’ does not seem to be a controversial variable in research, however, the CPH is more narrowly focused and therefore prone to trigger debates and controversies. Nevertheless, in all matters that are linked to the acquisition of L2, the latter (age factor) seems to be a dominating factor. However, research has proved that the impact and effect of age largely depends on the provision of opportunities for the acquisition of L2 within natural settings and this exposure has to be maintained and sustained over the entire learning period in order to get the best results. References Arturo E. Hernandez and Ping Li, (2007) Age of Acquisition: It’s Neural and Computational Mechanisms, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 133, No: 4, pgs. 638 – 650. Abello-Contesse, C. 2006. ‘Does interaction help or hinder oral L2 development in early English immersion?’ in C. Abello-Contesse et al. (eds.). Birdsong, David (2005). Native-likeness and non-native-likeness in L2. A research. International Review of Applied Linguistics 43 (4): 319–328 Brainard, M. S., & Doupe, A. J. (2002). What songbirds teach us about learning. Nature, 417, 351–358. Brainard, M. S., & Knudsen, E. (1998). Sensitive periods for visual calibration of the auditory space map in the barn owl optic tectum. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 3929–3942. Brown, R., C. Cazden, and U. Bellugi (1973) "The child's grammar from I to III." In C. Ferguson and D. Slobin (Eds.), Studies of Child Language Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, pp. 295-333. Butler, Y.G. 2005: Comparative perspectives towards communicative activities among elementary school teachers in South Korea, Japan and Taiwan. Language Teaching Research 9, 423–46. Cook, V. 1995. ‘Multicompetence and effects of age’ in D. Singleton and Z. Lengyel (eds.). The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters Ltd. David Michael Singleton & Zsolt Lengyel, (1995) The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition. Multilingual Matters. Pgs. 160 David Michael Singleton & Zsolt Lengyel, (1995) The Age Factor in Second Language Acquisition. Multilingual Matters. Pgs. 160 D¨ornyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 589–630). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Doughty, C. J. (2003). Instructed SLA: Constraints, compensation, and enhancement. In C. J. Doughty &M.H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 256–310). Malden, MA: Blackwell EUROPEAN COUNCIL (2002). Barcelona meeting. URL (accessed 20 May 2010): www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data Jenifer Larson-Hall, (2007) Weighing the benefits of studying a foreign language at a younger starting age in a minimal input situation, Second Language Research 24,1 (2008); pp. 35–63, University of North Texas. Johnstone, R. 2002. ‘Addressing ‘‘the age factor’’: some implications for language policy’. Council of Europe, Strasbourg: Available at: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/JohnstoneEN.pdf Koike, I. and Tanaka, H. 1995: English in foreign language education policy in Japan: toward the twenty-first century. World Englishes 14, 13–25. Krashen, S. (1977a) "Some issues relating to the Monitor Model." In H. D. Brown, C. Yorio, and R. Crymes (Eds.), On TESOL '77: Teaching and Learning English as a Second Language: Trends in Research and Practice. Washington: TESOL, pp. 144-158. Krashen, S. and H. Seliger (1975) "The essential contributions of formal instruction in adult second language learning." TESOL Quarterly 9: 173-183. Lenneberg, E. H. 1967. Biological Foundations of Language. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Long, Michael H. (2005). Problems with supposed counter-evidence to the Critical Period Hypothesis. International Review of Applied Linguistics 43 (4): 287–317. Muñoz, Carmen (2006b). The effects of age on foreign language learning: The BAF project. In Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning, Carmen Muñoz (ed.), 1–40 Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Scovel, T. 2000. ‘ ‘‘The younger, the better’’myth and bilingual education’ in R. D. Gonza´lez and I. Melis (eds.). Language Ideologies. Critical Perspectives on the Official English Movement. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Sieneke Goorhuis and Kees de Bot, (2010) “Impact of early English language teaching on L1 and L2 development in children in Dutch Schools”, International Journal on Bilingualism, Vol. 14, No: 3, Pgs. 289 – 302 Snow, C. and C. Ferguson (1977) (Eds.) Talking to Children: Language Input and Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wexler, K. (1998). Very early parameter setting and the unique checking constraint: A new explanation of the optional infinitive stage. Lingua, 106, 23 Read More