Individual Differences and Education - Literature review Example

Individual Differences and Education Introduction Much debate and studies has focused on the underlying elements that constitute to the high level of skills and abilities of expert performers. There has remained a contestation on whether the skills of performers lie in their nature/ innate abilities or if the skills are an end- result of deliberate learning. Some authors have suggested that the underlying factors that influence excellence includes divergence in early experiences with the activity they excel in, preferences, opportunities to participate in the specific activity or sport, training, habits and practice. Others have arguably mentioned that excellence is directly associated with time spent in deliberate practice as indicated by Ericsson & Lehman (1996). Moreover, others have mentioned that it is not only the time spent on deliberate training, but also, the definite structure and content of the practice time as highlighted by Starkes & Ericsson (2003). This report seeks to outline the main tenets of expert performance theory on the issue of whether native talent has a role in expertise development. In addition, it will examine evidence for this view in general reference to domain of expertise in sports, chess and musical performance. Main tenets of expert performance theory on the issue of whether native talent has a role in expertise development Acquiring excellence and being an expert needs substantial amount of efforts, reinforcements, regular assessments and feedback. In sports and musical performance for example, the performers require allocating regular duration of their time to practicing, being trained and coached by those with relevant expertise, experience and knowledge such as teachers and mentors. They need constant evaluation to determine their levels of expertise, examining their area or point of weaknesses and thus, work on ameliorating on those areas to improve their performance. In addition, giving the performers feedback not only on what they are doing right but also on what they are doing wrong and formulating plans on how they can better improve and enhance their skills and abilities as highlighted by Farrow & Baker (2008). This does not mean however, innate abilities do not have a part to play in the equation of becoming an expert performer. According to Farrow & Baker (2008), testable tenets that are the basis for deliberate practice framework are that expert performers specialize in specific activity at a younger age compared to less-accomplished performers. Moreover, expert performers begin training and deliberate practice at a younger age compared to less accomplished performers and expert performers accumulate more time and hour of deliberate practice throughout their career development compared to their counterparts. According Ericsson (1996), highest performance can only be, achieved through deliberate performance, which differs from regular practice. Deliberate practices vary from regular practices in that they are goal oriented and deliberate, where performers choose a particular skill they would want to improve on and thus, participate in regular practices with the skill before moving to varied skills as mentioned by Starkes (2000). In addition, deliberate practice is very methodical and it requires it be positioned in authentic setting, which allows performers to practice in conditions that emulate real-world situations, and finally, deliberate practice is reliant on feedbacks from coaches, self-generated views and through strategy guides (Ericsson & Lehman, 1996). Strategy guides includes books written on how to play a certain sport or even how to play a particular musical instrument. There are four tenets, which determine whether practice activities can be, considered deliberate practice or not that entails practice activities planned to enhance present performance and skills and practice activities that are highly pertinent to the specific domain. Additionally, practice activities that are considerable enough to need intensive energies and thoughts to accomplish, and practice activities that are not intrinsically pleasurable as described by Ericsson (2006). It is important to note that for a basketball player for example, despite their tall gaits and their ability to jump high, dribble and score, they do require coaching on timing and technical details on how to play basketball in order for them to play and be considered an expert performer. What separates a sub-elite tall, athletic young person with the potential to play basketball, with an expert basketball performer, is that the latter is in constant practice to make their play better and they are regularly being trained by persons with more expertise than they have who include mentors and coaches. In addition, they are regularly exposed to competition and tests with other able basketball players during tournaments and other related basketball competitions. After a game, an expert basketball performer personally reflects and reviews their game play to analyze where they did right and where it needs improving and they also receive feedback from their coaches on the same. Having a native ability without practicing on it specifically and at an environment that helps enhances performance does not help a talented person to become an expert performer as discussed by Starkes & Ericsson (2003). However, what native abilities do, is to make it easier for the talented person to learn faster and remember small details than ordinary persons would. In areas where the distinctive attribute between an expert and a non-expert are domain-definitive, their differences in the abilities to process information are attributable to training, than it is attributable to native abilities as mentioned by Ericsson (1996). In some instances nevertheless, general traits such as intelligence has a close link to genetics, but the ability to focus the intelligence to domain definitive skills such as strategic thinking and pattern recognition in Chess Games can be associated to particular training and practicing carried out in the past. To attain high levels of excellence and performance, it requires time for regular practice. According to Ericsson & Lehman (1996), it takes a minimum of ten years constituting of ten thousand hours of deliberate practice for an individual to become an expert. This however, requires keen attention since, the ten thousand hours has to be spent constructively in activities that help in improving the skills. For instance, two basketball players with similar skills at the start are practicing throws for two hours where player 1 throws 300 practice shots and player 2 throws a hundred of them. Player 1 has a friend who retrieves the basketball after every shot, while the friend notes down the shots player 1 makes. For every missed shot, the friend notes whether the shots were long, short, left, right, and player 1, assesses the results after every twenty-minute duration of practice. Player 2 on the other hand, retrieves his balls after every shot; he does not pay much attention to how many shots are missed and has several breaks during the practice. It would be incorrect to state that the hour of practice of player 1 and player 2 as equal. It is easier to see, which player would result to be a better thrower after fifty hours of practice regardless of them having equal skills and abilities at the start. This can be said of piano players. If one piano player regularly practices, notes down missed notes and constantly review their hour of practice compared to a piano player who relies on their talent and does not practice as much, the former is more likely to reach the highest level of excellence and performance in contrast to the latter. The role innate and native abilities plays in promoting excellence and expertise development cannot be disputed but they are not the basic constraints on expertise development. This is because, if it were so, one would anticipate an expert gymnast to as easily, without training show equal superiority, when performing in related activities and sports such as ice-skating (Montgomery, et al., 2005). In addition, an expert saxophonist does not automatically transfer their expertise to playing the bagpipes nor does a guitarist automatically play a violin without extended deliberate practice and training. Few or no athletes are able to transfer their expert performances across sport domains. Studies done by Chi et al. (1982), Mosier & Fischer (2010), and Montgomery et al. (2005) suggests that the superiority of experts in having more speed, memory and aptitude in psychometric exams does not lie on their native abilities or hereditary traits they may have been born with, the findings suggested the superiority was only domain specific. According to Ericsson & Lehman (1996), measuring general primary abilities do not envisage success in a domain, superiority of expert performers is domain specific, and therefore, they cannot be able to transfer their superior abilities across domains. In addition, the difference between an expert performer and ordinary persons does not reflect their native abilities but more often than not, on traits acquired by the experts during practice and training (Chi, et al., 1982). For example, an expert chess player is not proficient in the game based on inherent traits and abilities but their prospective moves and strategizing is based on the experience playing the game and their regular understanding of chess patterns. Expert chess players have ample experience which helps them obtain high level of more intricate patterns, which the chess player use to understand which moves they should take in related situations as illustrated by Chi et al. (1982). This means that native abilities plays a dismal role in expertise development since, the accumulated amount of deliberate practice is associated to the achieved level of excellence for experts across domains be it in music, sports and board games as stated by (Starkes & Ericsson, 2003). Expert chess players involuntarily do not use patterns and retrieve their counter moves from memory during chess games, they choose the relevant information they have, decipher it appropriately to allow them to plan, assess, reason alternative moves and their consequences and finally, execute the best suitable chess move. As stated by Chi, Glaser & Rees (1982), the disparity between experts and ordinary individuals is not only about the amount of knowledge and about the intricacy of acquired knowledge, but also it is illustrated by qualitative differences in how the experts organize their knowledge and represent it when they are playing a game or playing a music instrument. The knowledge of experts is deciphered in domain-linked thoughts and solution patterns from long-term memory that enable them, to rapidly and accurately retrieve suitable stored information whenever necessary (Mosier & Fischer, 2010). For ordinary individuals, (Mosier & Fischer, 2010) highlights the stored knowledge is deciphered using every day perceptions that makes relevant information retrieval inaccurate and hard to do. For expert performers as explained by Montgomery et al. (2005), their superior psychological representation of information enables them to adjust quickly to varying situations and predict future moves in advance. This is particularly vital for all experts across domains in monitoring and examining their own performance, which is fundamental in helping them enhance their own performance by planning and strategizing their training and practice and acquiring new performance knowledge (Starkes, 2000). Role of native abilities in expertise development On the other hand, varied situations and experiences tends to indicate that native abilities determines the ability of an individual to excel to highest level of performance and excellence in a domain without having spent the suggested ten years of relevant, suitable practice implied by Ericsson. Globally, there are children under the age of eight who have extraordinary skills and abilities to excel academically. Additionally, play chess, sing, play a musical instrument such as the piano and excel in sporting activities such as diving and horse riding without having time and opportunities for learning experiences that would be perceived necessary to attain their level of expertise as mentioned by Helsen et al. (2000). In addition, very young children have indicated exceptional abilities that can only be, attributed to innate origins. For example, a child may indicate a faultless pitch, which enhances their possibility of attaining high musical excellence in the future. In addition, Feldman & Goldsmith (1986), highlights of a child who started speaking in complete sentences at three months, held coherent conversations at six months and read simple books by twelve months. Studies have shown that there are biological elements that closely link to particular skills and capacities as illustrated by autistic savants (Hopkins, 2001). Despite the role deliberate practice and training plays in expertise development, it brings to question as to why thousands of people are active singers and players of musical instruments but only a few attain the highest levels of expertise and excellence in sports and music. Howard Gardner, who suggested there are seven intelligences naturally inherited that includes linguistic intelligence, musical, spatial, logical-mathematical, bodily kinaesthetic, interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence supports this line of thought. It is important to note though, innate abilities have to be, accompanied by constant stimulation of the abilities and skills and development of an accommodative and supportive environment (Helsen, et al., 2000). Although different people may obtain abilities and skills more easily and naturally than others, it does not indicate that native abilities are in play. This is because, the ability to acquire a skill or ability to play an instrument or excel in a sport is influenced by varied determinants such as motivation and inspiration given to the person, their personality, familiarity of tasks, learning environment and previous learning experience that foster the person’s self confidence as suggested by Hopkins (2001). In music however, children with ability to offer good pitch perception illustrates their increased probability to easily, sing than other children with pitch difficulties. This is biologically explained by Schlaug et al. (1995) who highlights that a child who have good music pitch perception early in life have brain morphology structural differences that allows them to effortlessly have faultless pitches. Such as a child have a stronger leftward plenum temporale asymmetry in contrast to people without faultless pitch perception. Innate abilities cannot be overruled since some people do have exceptional capacities that may actually be genetically, inherited and there exist traits and attributes that are possessed by a few minority groups or persons (Schlaug, et al., 1995). Numerous factors contribute to the differences in human abilities to excel beyond what is considered normal (Ericsson, et al., 1993). There are varied human determinants that influence the learning experiences of people to enhance their expertise development and their ultimate patterns of proficiencies. These human variables includes attentiveness, distractibility, competitiveness, applicable prior skills and knowledge, acquired preferences, personal interests, concentration, temperaments, personality features, self-confidence and self-esteem, motivation, physical attributes, zeal, apprehension and low energy as highlighted by Ericsson & Charness (1995). In addition, varied experiences and opportunities given to individuals, suitable training, and efficacy in training, practice, assessment and regular reviews. This means that prior experience within a domain such sports and music allows the performance to be more effortless and less challenging. Performance can be enhanced only by practicing in order to help the person to improve specific areas of their performance under the guidance of a mentor, coach, within a secure and supportive environment that foster reflection, exploration of options, solving emerging performance issues and challenges and repetition with enlightening feedback (Schlaug, et al., 1995). Highest level of performance and expertise in a particular domain such as in Chess and sports is not acquired by merely getting involved in long durations of experience, but it can be enhanced through deliberate practice and endeavours to improve. This means, stable level of excellence after extended experience is not restricted by innate abilities and reasons but deliberate attempts and efforts on the part of the individual. Development of expertise development occurs in three phases as identified by Ericsson & Charness, (1995) who highlights that the first stage is when the performance practice is initiated in a child or an individual. The second phase occurs when there is a transition from perceiving the activity just as enjoyable and fun to fully committing time, resources and energy to developing performance. The experts looking for methods that can help them make eminent accomplishments characterize the third stage. Obtaining relevant knowledge and skills are the main impediments to acquiring the highest level of expertise development (Ericsson & Charness, 1995). This means that each domain in sports and music, the technique of training and competent training grow correspondingly with accumulation of relevant knowledge and techniques as mentioned by Ericsson et al. (1993). For example in soccer, football coaches monitor training sessions designed to the needs of expert soccer players and beginners to enhance their particular areas of performance through continuous refinement and repetition. The role of native abilities in expertise development seems to diminish as explained by (Ericsson & Charness, 1995) who mentions that disparities between expert performers and less accomplished performers is reflective of acquired skills, knowledge and psychological adaptability as a result of training rather than native abilities with only verified exception of height for sporting athletes as verified by Hopkins (2001). This is where tall people are more, advantaged to participate in sports such as basketball, while short framed individuals are suitable to be gymnasts. Conclusion Acquiring high level of expertise and excellence is a debatable issue in respect to the underlying factors. While some researchers support the perceptions that high performing experts have distinct innate abilities, others have empirically argued that high performing experts are no different to less accomplished performers only they participate in deliberate extended practice and training to fine-tune their ability to assess, plan, reflect on alternatives and select appropriate moves or decisions. Native abilities although prevalent in some instances, its role in development of expertise is minimal if not non-existent. The report has outlined the main tenets of expert performance theory on whether native talent plays a role in expertise development by examining the evidence of the chosen view using general references to domain of expertise in sports, chess and musical performance. Disparities between expert performers and less accomplished performers are reflective of acquired skills, knowledge and psychological adaptability because of training rather than native abilities. Although different people may obtain abilities and skills more easily and naturally than others, it does not indicate that native abilities are in play. This is because, the ability to acquire a skill or ability to play an instrument or excel in a sport is influenced by varied determinants such as motivation and inspiration, personality, familiarity of tasks, competition, effectiveness of training, learning environment and previous learning experience that foster the person’s self confidence. References Chi, M. T. H., Glaser, R., & Rees, E. (1982). Expertise in problem solving. Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, 1, 1-75. Ericsson, K. A. (1996). The acquisition of expert performance: An introduction to some of the issues. The Road to Excellence: The Acquisition of Expert Performance in the Arts and Sciences, Sports, and Games, pp. 1-50. Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1995). 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