Instructional Programs for Reading and Writing Difficulties - Literature review Example

Instructional programs for reading and writing difficulties {Insert student’s name} {Insert university’s name} {Insert university's name] March 16, 2012. Instructional programs for reading and writing difficulties According to Berne & Blachowicz, (2008, p. 314), reading and writing are not natural skills as some individuals tend to believe. More specifically adults who have never involved in teaching believe that reading and reading skills are not only natural and also reflex actions (Allington, 2002, p. 262). However, Haager, Dimino, & Windmueller, (2007, p. 112) point out that skills needed to read and write are not naturally hardwired in the brain of human beings in the same manner talking and listening are. Accordingly, human beings are in possession of language instincts which is not for written language but rather for spoken one (Gargiulo, 2003, p. 59). In order to prove this, it is essential to review the history of writing invention to realize that people are not naturally equipped with reading skills. Since writing and reading are not natural skills. It is not shocking that learning them is challenging to some children (James, 2002, p. 78). Hallahan & Kauffman (2006, p. 45) point out that the basic reading task is to pick up a written code and transform the same into a speech that is meaningful. For instance the reading skill involves three processes which include sight, sound and meaning. Hence, the beginning reader has the task of transforming the mute symbols that appears on the page into sounds before changing the sounds into words (Heward, 2000, p. 77). Moreover, teachers have affirmed that some children acquire reading and writing skills with ease and faster while others attain the same with difficulty. According to James (2002, p. 90) learning difficulties does not necessarily arise from cognitive limitations. This is because some studies have proven that despite children having difficulty with reading and writing, they are usually bright. Therefore, it is essential for teachers to have a better understanding why some children have difficulty in reading and reading in order to come up with effective instruction programs to assess and address the same (Klingner, 2007, p. 108). McKenna & Stahl (2003, p. 67), the key determinant of the ease in which children can read is assessed through their ability to be in a position to detect and isolate phonemes. However, most children teach themselves skills of detecting phonemes without necessarily being taught by their teachers. On the other hand, some children are in a position to understand that certain written letters are representative of a phoneme while others have to work independently and therefore certain letters can be a representative of different phonemes (Klingner, 2007, p. 130). Teachers should apply reading comprehension as a tool for assessing the problems faced by children in reading and writing (Haager, Dimino, & Windmueller, 2007, p. 202). This can be achieved by teachers requesting children to read a passage drawn from a particular text before asking them some detailed and explicit questions on text’s content. Nonetheless, there exist certain variations pertaining to reading comprehension assessments. For instance, teachers should consider using inferential questions from the text rather than explicit ones (Pearson, 2005, p. 167). Additionally, teachers should test children’s ability to comprehend reading by asking them to retell the story in their own words. Furthermore, teachers can incorporate a comprehension assessment known as cloze task (O’Connor, 2007, p. 190). This is whereby words are omitted from the selected passage, and then children are requested to use appropriate words to fill in the blanks. Additionally, teachers should be requested to read and then outlined simple instructions like run fast or sit down. It is essential for teachers not to confuse reading accuracy when designing teaching materials for assessing writing and reading skills among children. O’Connor (2007, p. 90) another important program that should be included in the instructional programs is word recognition. This is because; the essential skill in reading is recognition of both words and letters. Therefore, it is important for teachers to include aural and visual simulation in the instructional programs. This is because learners are in a position to recognize the letters and the words from visual patterns which are presented to him or her before transforming the same into sound stimulus (Pearson, 2005, p. 90). Therefore, the whole-word approach should be applicable in the instruction programs due to the fact that learners are in a position to recognize whole words and not identify words independently together with their respective sounds. Additionally teachers should encourage the students to read aloud and listen to them before providing feedback concerning the same. During the process, teachers should be in a position to determine the level of the students understanding. However, teachers should ensure that primary reading materials are interesting in order to motivate the students (Pearson, 2005, p. 167). Finally, the programs/materials should have paired or repeated reading as some of the activities that promote accuracy and fluency in reading. Teachers should also include the aspect of decoding in the instructional programs to be used in developing writing and reading skills for children with difficulties in the same. O’Connor (2007, p. 123) defines decoding as the process whereby both the written words and letters are translated into a certain language. The decoding skills are usually emphasized during the first stages of reading. Therefore, it is important that phonics is included in the instructional programs that are to be used by teachers in addressing reading difficulties. This is due to the fact that learners, progress from phonics before learning the sounds of every letter of a given language then put the sounds together to construct words. There the initial stages of the reading materials need to contain a number of repetitions of these kinds of simple letters. This is because simple words are likely to encourage learners to practice reading and finally create a reading vocabulary. This time of teaching programs will make children to effect the code into every written word presented to them. Pressley (2001, p.39) have argued that decoding skills is the foundation for successful reading. Moreover, decoding should be emphasized into the teaching program because it is during the deciding stage that reading accuracy as well as the speed is determined. According to Pressley (2001, p. 45) Prior knowledge is essential and should be included in instructional programs. The primary books used should be interesting to the students. Therefore, in the classroom, teachers need to pay attention to both concepts and words that are not familiar to the students an aspect that is essential to second language learners. Moreover, teachers should discuss the concepts and words with their students prior to reading the books. This is because process will assist in activating prior knowledge as well as improve comprehension. Students should then be asked to summarize the topic as a way of activating their prior knowledge (Passman & McKnight, 2007, p. 156). Motivation and purpose: The main aim of reading is to have a better understanding of the meaning of a text as well as putting the same into use. Additionally, an individual reads a text with an aim of finding information and learning as well as to be entertained or for the purpose of reflection. Therefore, the teaching programs should be designed with the different needs of students put in mind and their motivation to read. In order to attain this, the reading and teaching materials should be made interesting so that the students can be motivated to read them. Rasinski & Padak (2009, p. 618) reading and writing skills are closely related to one another and this makes it essential for integrated reading and writing to be used by teachers in addressing reading and writing difficulties among children. Therefore, the process of developing reading skills via writing is a strategy that is effective. Additionally, for children learning to spell and write assists them in developing their knowledge of print conventions (Vlach & Burcie, 2010, p. 522). Therefore, it is essential for teachers to guide children during the process of writing so that they could be in a position to speak out their experience regarding the same. Passman & McKnight (2007) pointed out that teachers should write down the children words as he speaks about his experience. The children should then be encouraged what has been written down by the teacher. This kind of learning strategy establishes the written and oral connection thus encouraging writing and reading skills in children with difficulties in attaining the same. Additionally, teachers should encourage children to write traditions, traditions and myths. In teaching writing skills, the programs should encourage children to practice spelling words without being presented with a visual prompt (Anderson & Balajthy, 2009, p. 71). This can be attained by teachers presenting short rhyming words to the students. Additionally, it is important for teachers to encourage the students to pay attention on letters of the words by using their alphabetical knowledge. In order to attain this, teachers need to make use of flashcard for the purpose of sentence construction. Finally, in addressing reading and writing difficulties look, learn, cover, write and check method need to be integrated into the instructional programs. This is due to the fact that the technique can be applied to children of all ages (Sweet & Snow, 2003, p. 84). However, children can make use of the procedures is they are fun. So the teaching design/materials pertaining to the same should be written and personalized. Reference: Anderson, R., & Balajthy, E. (2009, March). Stories About Struggling Readers and Technology. The Reading Teacher, 62(6), 540–542. Allington, R.L. (2002). Research on Reading/Learning Disability Interventions. In A.E. Farstrup, & S. Samuels (Eds.), What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction (pp. 261-290). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Berne, J.I., & Blachowicz, C.Z. (2008, December). What Reading Teachers Say About Vocabulary Instruction: Voices From the Classroom. The Reading Teacher, 62(4), 314–323 Gargiulo, R. M. (2003). Special education in contemporary society : an introduction to exceptionality. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, Haager, D., Dimino, J.A. & Windmueller, M.P., (2007) Interventions for reading success Baltimore, Brookes Pub. Co. Hallahan, D. P. & Kauffman. J.M. (2006). Exceptional learners: introduction to special education. (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Heward, W. L. (2000). Exceptional children :An introduction to special education.(6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Merrill. James, P. (Ed.). (2002). Rethinking professional issues in special education. Westport, Conn, London : Ablex. Klingner, J.K., (2007) Teaching reading comprehension to students with learning disabilities New York: Guilford Press McKenna, M. C. & Stahl. S. A. (2003). Assessment for reading instruction. NY: Guilford Press. O’Connor, R.E., (2007) Teaching word recognition: effective strategies for students with learning difficulties New York: Guilford Press Passman, R. & McKnight, K (2007). Teaching writing in the inclusive classroom: strategies and skills for all students. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pearson, P.D., (2005) What every teacher should know about reading comprehension instruction [video recording] Portsmouth: Heinemann Pressley, M. (2001) Learning to Read: lessons from exemplary first-grade classrooms. NY: Guilford Press Sweet, A. P. & Snow, C. C. (2003). Rethinking reading comprehension. NY: Guilford Press. Rasinski, T., & Padak, N. (2009, April). Write Soon! The Reading Teacher, 62(7), 618– 620. Vlach, S., & Burcie, J. (2010, March). Narratives of the Struggling Reader. The Reading Teacher, 63(6), 522–525. Read More