Various Forms of Transport - Dissertation Example

?Sustainable transportation Introduction Transportation has become one of the most indispensable tools of man, mostly for travel and for the movementof goods and people across distances. Various forms of transport have now been made available to man, traversing most distances, from land, air, to water. Most of these mediums of transport are fuelled by petroleum oil, not many by alternative fuel. Oil however has long been considered an environmentally hazardous material and causes various ecological dangers which are harmful to the environment. These dangers also represent risks for the future thereby presenting unsustainable dangers for future generations. This paper shall discuss sustainable transportation, including its essential elements and applications in the current society where oil fuelled transport is the dominant form of transport. This portion of the research seeks to link the previous elements on sustainable transport in the Riyadh region, where the first part discussed scenarios, Delphi and the strength of combining them. This paper is being undertaken in order to establish the importance of sustainable transportation including its application in Riyadh and how improvements in its application can be implemented. Body Definition In general, it is easy enough to understand what sustainable means. If something can be sustained, it can also be maintained and it can therefore endure. At present, sustainability is about establishing a balance between economic, social needs, and the environment in the hope of securing healthy and equitable lifestyles and tools for future communities (Deakin, 2001). Sustainability also highlights the importance of environmental quality, economic wellness, and social equality. Economic and social development must not impact on the environment within the worldwide context, instead, such developments must improve it (Deakin, 2001). Sustainable economics ensure that there is a distinction between growth or increased quantity and development of increased development; in other words, the notion of quality over quantity. Under this context, sustainable transport refers to transportation which fulfils mobility needs while preserving and supporting human and environmental health, economic progress, as well as social justice not just for the current, but also for the future generation (Deakin, 2001). Planning for sustainable development seeks to achieve these three goals all at the same time in a just manner, ensuring access and mobility in the process (Deakin, 2001). The idea of sustainability came from various meetings and reports in the 1970s and 1980s where in 1972, at the UN Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment, the first international meeting was set discussing the impact of human activities on the environment and humans (Hopwood, et.al., 2005). The 1980 World Conservation Strategy set by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as well as the UN Environment Program and the World Wildlife Fund established the idea of environmental protection. In 1987, the UN supported Brundtland Commission published the report Our Common Future where they discussed concerns related to the environment and poverty in various parts of the globe (Hopwood, et.al., 2005). The report expressed that although economic development cannot be stopped, its course must be changed in order to fit environmental and ecological limitations. The report also gave credence to the term sustainable development which the commission defined as: development which supports current needs without endangering the ability of future generations to secure their own purposes and needs (Hopwood, et.al., 2005). Much attention on sustainability was seen at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (Sustainability Report Program, 2000). This conference gathered senior officials from 179 countries; this conference also included the Earth Summit which is considered to be the largest ever gathering of world leaders (Sustainability Report Program, 2000). This gathering established two agreements and a major action agenda on worldwide sustainable development. Various incidents triggered interest in sustainability, including events like the leak of poisonous gases at a chemical plant in Bhopal, India, the leak at the nuclear plant in Chernobyl, and the hole in the ozone layer which was discovered (Sustainability Report Program, 2000). The Brundtland report discussed these concerns, declaring that significant unintended changes are happening to the environment; and yet, our environment also has thresholds which have to be protected in order to secure the integrity of the ecosystem (Hopwood, et.al., 2005). In relation to sustainable transport, its various tools and concepts have already been established even before the term was developed. Walking was considered one of the primary manifestations of sustainable transport (Steg and Gifford, 2005). Various developments in means of transport were soon developed but also caused various environmental issues. Major concerns on the sustainability of transport emerged during the 1973 oil crisis and re-emerged during the 1979 energy crisis (Joshua, et.al., 2007). The significant cost of fuel triggered called for alternative forms of transport and of fuel. Different countries sought to implement various sustainable options for transport. At present, the implementation of sustainable transport has not yet reached widespread implementation and this seems to be the challenge presented for various governments. Criticisms of sustainable development discuss how sustainable development itself can be dangerous because of its unknown effects. There is an inherent interdependence of the variables in the ecology and policies which are not carefully considered may eventually bring about adverse effects for the ecology and for the economy (Pezzey, 1997). It is also being criticized as a vague term, with unclear goals and tools of implementation. It seems to open up risks for interventionist policies which can stifle liberties without achieving clear goals. As for sustainable transport, critics claim that sustainable transport is often used as a marketing technique in order to sell products which may not actually be effective in protecting the environment (Taylor, 1992). Critics also claim the green products or green transport systems are not clearly explained and as a result, many individuals are often misled into buying products which are ‘green’ but have no viable support for their ‘greenness’ (Taylor, 1992). Another issue in the discussion of sustainability is that of weak and strong sustainability (Hopwood, et.al., 2005). Weak sustainability believes that natural and manufactured capital can be swapped with technology and is able to fill in human failings, including depleted resources and environmental damage. By replacing other factors for natural resources, the world in general can manage without natural resources (Hopwood, et.al., 2005). As a result, exhaustion is considered an event, not a major disaster. Strong sustainability takes issue with this argument, declaring that human-made capital cannot supplant various processes which are crucial to man’s existence, including the ozone layer or the water cycle (Hopwood, et.al., 2005). Other critics also argue that non-human species, natural systems, as well as biodiversity also have rights and values. The controversy between weak and strong sustainability is based mostly on environmental issues, not so much considering socio-economic circumstances. Transportation Impact on Sustainability The use of transport energy is equivalent to 26% of total world energy use. Moreover, the transport sector is responsible for about 23% of world energy-related GHG emissions (Sturm, 2012). Emissions from airplanes vary depending on length of flight with those covering longer flights having less of an impact on the environment as compared to shorter flights. Carbon dioxide emissions from air travel are nevertheless significant and researchers have already expressed their concern on the increased air flights which people are taking and the environmental impact of these flights (Sturm, 2012). As for cars, unleaded gasoline has been known to produce about 8.87 kg of carbon dioxide per gallon (US EIA, 2011). For buses, they are known to produce about 0.3 kg of carbon dioxide per passenger mile and even more with longer miles (US EIA, 2011). The commuter rails emit about 0.16 kg of carbon dioxide per passenger mile and even more with longer miles. For delivery trucks and big rigs, they produce 10.17 kg of carbon dioxide per gallon of diesel they consume (US EIA, 2011). These transport systems therefore impact significantly on sustainability, increasing chlorofluorocarbons in the air and contributing to global warming which is a major deterrent to sustainable development. In recent years, new consumers have emerged and these consumers have come from affluent backgrounds able to afford their own transport systems. These new consumers should benefit from their affluence. This is an expected reality, especially due to the fact that they have also experienced meagre lifestyles in the past (Myers and Kent, 2002). However, the environmental impact of their affluence is such that it is in the interest of the 20 countries to limit the damage with their economic penalties. In fact, in addition to the global impact of carbon emissions from cars which seem to increase climate change, the world at large has a major stake over and above the even greater stake of older consumers (Myers and Kent, 2002). The community at large has had a major interest in the 1.3 billion individuals who have borne poverty and whose basic needs require greater consumption of resources. These needs are however not within the coverage of this paper. Instead, this study will highlight the significant impacts that current patterns of transportation have on the environment and the complex interactions between transportation, land use, and activity system. Economic Implications Traffic congestion Traffic congestion has a significant impact on the environment and on the economy. For one, it wastes time for motorists and passengers and in general decreases the economic health of any country or region suffering from traffic congestion (Gilles and Duranton, 2011). Delays due to late arrivals on meetings, work, and school also represent lost business as well as personal losses. Traffic congestion also reduces a traveller’s ability to estimate travel time; sometimes causing him to overestimate time which may then also decrease their time allocated for other productive activities (Gilles and Duranton, 2011). Traffic congestion also increases fuel consumption, thereby also increasing air pollution, mostly from idling, braking, and acceleration. The wear and tear of vehicles during idling and other road activities while in traffic jams also cause more repairs and thereby imply higher costs for users (Gilles and Duranton, 2011). Mobility barriers Mobility basically refers to physical movement through various modes of transport including walking, cycling, automobile rides, and other modes of transport (Litman, 2008). Barriers to mobility include physical exclusion which usually comes from physical barriers in the access of transportation and other services; geographical exclusion which usually refers to geographical barriers limiting individuals from participating in the main economic activities available; exclusion from facilities, which refer to the limited access to facilities due to lack of access to transport; time-base exclusion where time is the barrier to mobility itself due to the long period of time travel can take place; and fear-based exclusion where fear of transport can prevent travel (Chakwizira, 2009). Other elements like crash damages, transportation facility costs, consumer transportation costs and the depletion of non-renewable resources also impact on the economic impact of sustainable transportation. In effect, with higher rates of crashes, the less sustainable transportation is, and the higher the costs of transportation facilities. It has long been assumed that higher mobility leads to higher overall economic profits (Chakwizira, 2009). However, more recent studies seem to indicate that increased mobility can actually imply higher negative economic costs which can in the end, reduce economic gains. In relation to the crash disabilities, indicators naturally imply that fewer crashes are better for the sustainability of transport systems (Litman and Burwell, 2006). As for health and fitness, this may refer to the population which regularly walks or jogs. In this instance, more walks and mobility is better. In relation to equity of costs, more equity is the better choice, and this also applies to those who are disabled (Litman and Burwell, 2006). Non-motorised equipments are also better options, along with citizen involvement in transport planning activities. In relation to the environment, lesser carbon dioxide emissions are the preferred options, along with assessment of per capita emissions of other air pollutants like carbon monoxide, and other chlorofluorocarbons (Litman and Burwell, 2006). Lesser noise pollutants as well as water and land pollutants are also preferred in order to ensure sustainable transportation. Moreover, involvement in habitat protection and environmental protection of forests and other wildlife sanctuaries also seems to be one of the better options in sustainable development (Litman and Burwell, 2006). How did we get here? Man laid out the first tracks, mostly by carrying goods from one place to another and these tracks were often laid out usually out of necessity (Herbst, 2005). With animals becoming more domesticated, wider and flatter tracks were soon laid out. As contraptions were invented in order to drag goods from one place to another, even wider tracks were laid out. Animal-drawn transport vehicles were first seen in Sumeria in the Near East during the 4th millennium BC; these developments soon became widespread reaching Europe and India, and later China in 1200 BC (Herbst, 2005). The Romans also needed wider roads in order to establish their empires and for which reason, more roads were built. The Industrial Revolution soon brought about modern roads which were made of macadam (soil and stone). Motor transport systems introduced into the roads soon developed the need to build hard-topped roads to prevent bogging and dust exposure (Herbst, 2005). Soon enough cobblestone roads became the trend, followed by wooden paving during the early 20th century. Eventually concrete paving followed this development. The evolution of road development also followed the development of new forms of transport, from the animal drawn carriages, to bicycles, motor cars, and then to electric vehicles (Herbst, 2005). Maritime transportation was one of the earliest forms of transport to develop. Boats were first developed in order to navigate rivers for their fishing (Herbst, 2005). Soon enough, these boats were built for travel with bigger and sturdier bodies. In the Mediterranean, galleys were also developed, but were soon dismissed by other sailing ships developed in the 13th century and later in the 15th century. During the Industrial revolution, steamboats were built and were later replaced by diesel-powered ships (Herbst, 2005). Rail transport soon developed as an alternative means of transport. Rail transport was first developed in order to transport coal from the mines and down into the river where they usually travel on by boat (Herbst, 2005). Cast iron rails were developed in the mid-1700s and later, modern rail transport was introduced in England in the 1820s. This system used steam locomotives to power its engines. Flying was also one of the fondest hopes of man for while. Various attempts at this possibility was explored by different scientists and researchers and eventually the Wright brothers succeeded in making the first sustained and controlled flight in 1903 (Herbst, 2005). In the years that followed, more developments in air travel were introduced. After the Second World War, major improvements to air travel were made and eventually commercial flights became available to the public (Herbst, 2005). More and more improvements to air, land, and sea travel are being introduced with each passing year by various transportation companies. These improvements have all created issues in sustainable transport, issues which have to be resolved to ensure sustainable development. Economic development and transport are very much linked with each other. Urbanization has grown rapidly in the past century and it has brought about major improvements in transport. Another element which has accelerated the increase in transport energy use and carbon emissions is on the gradual growth of size, weight, and the power of these vehicles (Giddings, et.al., 2002). With increase in income, many travellers are now opting for faster and more energy intensive transport modes. In other words, the options have gradually shifted from walking and bicycling to public transport or private automobiles for short trips, and air travel for longer trips (Giddings, et.al., 2002). With the rise of income, the rate of travel has also increased with the percentage of trips by automobiles having seen an increase as well. The trend in transportation development has been towards faster and more energy intensive means of transport. As a result, the share of rail and domestic waterways in freight movement has declined over the years, and on the other hand air transport has enjoyed an increase in travellers. Transportation patterns also seem to be affected by land-use patterns, mostly in low-density development and generous road parking supply. Automobile-oriented site design, automobile dependency is higher, thereby causing high levels of per capital motor vehicle mileage and reduced quality of travel alternatives like walking or cycling (Litman and Burwell, 2006). Experts declare that sustainable transport needs high-density land use patterns which allow for alternative travel modes and that cities with high-density neighbourhoods built around transport systems would be the better choice for sustainable transport. Arguments against this set-up however have been presented, mostly on high-density development and the costs it can impose (Litman and Burwell, 2006). Moreover, many families would not willingly live in high-density and transit-based cities; and that the low-density and automobile-oriented land-use areas are not always more energy efficient as compared to high-density and transit-oriented urban areas (Litman and Burwell, 2006). Equity has various implications in transport policies, however there are limited standards in the evaluation of the different kinds of transportation equity. Some issues which relate to sustainable planning involve horizontal equity (Litman, 2003). This implies that externalities in transport must be eliminated, except where specified. This would include eliminating toxic emissions and accident risks in vehicles, and paying those who have to be responsible for external costs (Litman, 2003). It also implies that users are able to get what they pay for which may involve sturdy and paved roads; moreover, they also need to pay for what they get, which may involve parking and insurance pricing. Vertical equity refers to the access points which must improve for individuals who are economically and socially disadvantaged (Litman and Burwell, 2006). This may include improved forms of transport, cycling and walking conditions, as well as ride-sharing. Sustainable transport planning provides support for decreased automobile dependency. However, other individuals believe that benefits established by automobiles exceed the costs and that issues can be resolved with technical improvements (Litman and Laube, 1999). Moreover, alternatives are more risky and automobile dependency is inevitable. This debate is based on economic and environmental considerations. Even as basic levels of automobile use provide benefits, evidence indicates that beyond certain thresholds, automobile use can have negative effects (Litman and Laube, 1999). Distortions in the market seem to be a main contributor in the greater dependence in automobiles which are then causing more pollution. These distortions are caused by funding for highways which then support roadway constructions; increased parking services and improved road capacity standards; zoning laws and development activities which support automobile land use; inexpensive automobile use; lack of travel alternatives; and roads unsuitable for walking or cycling (Litman and Burwell, 2006). In effect, reducing automobile dependency can also lead to the establishment of a more sustainable transport system and reducing market distortions can also assist in securing such an objective. How can we get there? In order to achieve sustainable transport, there are various remedies which can be applied. One of these remedies is smart growth (Pollard, 2001). Smart growth seeks to establish benefits of growth while reducing the costs by then minimizing the subsidies for sprawl and ensuring development through less destructive ways. In other words, smart growth does not focus much on whether growth should be supported (Pollard, 2001). Instead, it focuses on how growth can be achieved. Sustainable transport can also be seen in a similar light. “Instead of seeking to prohibit motor vehicles or reduce mobility, these efforts seek to reduce subsidies for motor vehicle use and to develop a transport system that is less environmentally damaging, provides efficient mobility and access, and protects community livability” (Pollard, 2001, p. 1558). Smart growth can be established by broadening the focus of transport, eliminating automobile subsidies, maintaining existing infrastructure, ensuring context-sensitive road design, linking transportation with environmental and health protection, and promoting more sensible development (Pollard, 2001, pp. 1558-1568). Conventional planning can also establish sustainable transport. This planning assesses transport system performance according to mobility, ignoring other accessibility elements and options in improvement (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2011). For instance, in the case of mobility-based planning, the best solution for traffic congestion is road expansion (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2011). For accessibility-based planning, other solutions could be considered, including alternative routes and accessible land use activities. In other words, the best sustainable strategies are those which can reduce traffic congestion, pollution, and costs of transport, while also ensuring efficient land use. In effect, these elements combined create a win-win situation for all individuals concerned and for the environment as well (Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2011). Changes in the vehicle/fuel technology can also be implemented in order to reach sustainable transport. Standard gasoline spark-ignition engines are improving and improvements include friction reduction, cylinder deactivation, and other sophisticated changes which seek to reduce their environmental impact (Heywood, 2008). Hybrid electric vehicles are also changes which can be implemented. These cars have low pollution impact; however they are more expensive to develop but they potentially provide significant benefits for sustainable transport (Heywood, 2008). With the above considerations combined, it is possible to somehow gain sustainable transportation. Considerations are meant to reduce the impact of transportation on the environment, establishing modifications in the transport systems, zoning systems, as well as the roadways in order to ensure sustainable transport systems. Ladder of interventions The idea of enabling choice soon after providing better data and education is part of the government approach to sustainable travel. This process is based on the ladder of interventions. The goal is not on eliminating or restricting choice; instead, the goal is to ensure and encourage healthier and sustainable choices, those that help support local growth (Department of Transport, 2011). The first level is on doing nothing and simply overseeing the current scenario. Second, is on establishing information and educating individuals. Third, is on enabling choice and ensuring that people change their behaviour (Department of Transport, 2011). Fourth, is on guiding choice by changing the alternatives; in short, making healthier options the default option for people. Fifth, is on guiding the choices being made via incentives, including financial incentives to prompt people to make the right choices (Department of Transport, 2011). Sixth, is to guide choice through disincentive, using financial costs and burdens to influence individuals to seek better alternatives. Seventh, is to restrict choice, in other words, to regulate and restrict available options (Department of Transport, 2011); and finally, to eliminate choice and regulate in order to eliminate these choices in their entirety. This ladder of interventions eventually improve current data on sustainable travel, ensuring that primary users of transport would be properly informed of their options and act on these options for sustainable transport. Scenario planning can be implemented in order to establish sustainable transportation. The study by Shiftan, et.al., (2003) established the expected scenario and the desired scenario based on the two-round Delphi expert-based survey. According to experts, the research assesses potential policy measures which may impact on sustainable transport in a certain region. By building both expected and desired scenarios, it is then possible to assess the feasibility of the desired scenario and then evaluate its applicability of its elements (Shiftan, et.al., 2003). The combination of policy measures is important in order to secure sustainable transport, with land uses and technological elements being crucial requirements, and economic as well as governmental policies playing minor roles (Shiftan, et.al., 2003). Main indicators in the desired scenario include a highly-developed public transport system, improved coordination between spatial development and transport system, high parking fees, congestion pricing, and securing the functional authority of the central business district (Shiftan, et.al., 2003). With these elements in place, it is possible to secure sustainable transport in almost any region. Key drivers of future surface transport demand Various drivers for surface transport demand have been discussed by different authors and interest groups. Main factors which have emerged in these discussions include economic growth, population growth, energy prices, and governmental/environmental policies (OECD, 2006). Income levels, household size, demographic composition, population density, technology, and regulation are some of the other factors which have also emerged as drivers for increased transport demand in the current and the future setting (OECD, 2006). Many of these are inevitable changes and without current remedies would likely impact on future sustainability. Ways of enhancing collaboration In order to improve collaboration with the end goal of ensuring sustainable transport, various studies suggest different strategies. In a study by the Nova Scotia Transportation and Infrastructure Renewal (2008), suggestions include: promotion of shifts to high efficiency vehicles; disclosure of GHG emission effects from publicly-supported passenger and freight transport; shifting to high-efficiency vehicles; disclosure of GHG emissions from passenger and freight transport alternatives; and promotion of compact development and transport pedestrian development. These efforts, when implemented in all agencies and involves transport groups, can help secure the wide implementation of sustainable transport systems. Strength of scenario-Delphi method In order to improve sustainable transport, the Delphi method can explore, objectively the issues which require judgment. Through objective assessment of issues, the truth can be established efficiently (Shiftan, et.al., 2003). Delphi is also a useful technique in establishing answers to appropriate questions. It is more specific in its application and in the case of sustainable transport, it can identify factors through respondents, especially on probabilities as well as impact of activities (Gordon, 2004). The size of the impact can also be efficiently measured and trends can be studied as factors impacting on participants and on the scenario in general. Conclusion Sustainable transport is based on a variety of elements. It has long been a major option being considered by environmentalists and government authorities. Implementing it however requires various considerations, mostly on coordination and tools for implementation. With the various methods and suggestions explained above however, sustainable transport can be achieved and secured in most any part of the world. The following section of this research shall now consider sustainable transport and its possible application in Riyadh. References Chakwizira, J., 2009. Social Dimensions and the impact of sustainable transport and mobility on social development. CSIR, Built Environment [online] Available at: http://researchspace.csir.co.za/dspace/bitstream/10204/3965/1/Chikwizira_2009.pdf [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Deakin, E. 2001. Sustainable development and sustainable transportation: strategies for economic prosperity, environmental quality, and equity. IURD Working Paper Series, Institute of Urban and Regional Development. UC Berkeley. Department of Transport, 2008. Creating growth, cutting carbon making sustainable local transport happen [online] Available at: http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm79/7996/7996.pdf [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Duranton, G. and Turner, M., 2011. The fundamental law of road congestion: evidence from US. cities. American Economic Review, 101(6), 2616-52. Giddings, B., Hopwood, B., and O’Brien, G., 2002. Environment, economy and society: fitting the together into sustainable development. Sust. Dev. 10, 187–196. Gordon, T., 2004. The Delphi method. The Millennium Project [online] Available at: http://test.scripts.psu.edu/students/d/j/djz5014/nc2if/04-Delphi.pdf [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Herbst, J., 2005. The history of transportation. London: Lerner Publications. Heywood, J., 2008. More sustainable transportation: the role of energy efficient vehicle technologies. International Transport Forum [online]. Available at: http://www.internationaltransportforum.org/Topics/Workshops/WS1Heywood.pdf [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Hopwood, B., Mellor, M. and O’Brien, G., 2005. Sustainable development: mapping different approaches. Sustainable Development, 13, 38–52. Litman, T., 2003. Measuring transportation: traffic, mobility and accessibility. ITE Journal, 73(10), pp. 28–32 Litman, T., 2008. Sustainable transportation indicators: a recommended research program for developing sustainable transportation indicators and data [online] Available at: http://www.vtpi.org/sustain/sti.pdf [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Litman, T. and Burwell, D., 2006. Issues in sustainable transportation. Int. J. Global Environmental Issues, 6(4), 331-347 Litman, T. and Laube, F., 1999. Automobile dependency and economic development. Victoria Transport Policy Institute [online] Available at: http://www.vtpi.org/ecodev.pdf [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Myers, N. and Kent, J., 2002. New consumers: The influence of affluence on the environment. PNAS, 100(8), 4963–4968. Nova Scotia Transportation and Infrastructure Renewal, 2008. Sustainable transportation strategy [online] Available at: http://gov.ns.ca/tran/hottopics/SustainableTransportationStrategy2008.pdf [Accessed 03 June 2012]. OECD, 2006. Infrastructure to 2030: telecom, land transport, water and electricity. UK: OECD Publishing. Pearce, J., Johnson, S., and Grant, G., 2007. Resources, conservation and recycling, 51, 435-453 Pezzey, J., 1997. Sustainability constraints versus 'optimality' versus intertemporal concern, and axioms versus data. Land Economics, 73 (4), 448–466. Pollard, O., 2001. Smart growth and sustainable transportation: can we get there from here?. Fordham Urban Law Journal, 29(4), 1521-1566 Shiftan, Y, Kaplan, S, and Hakkert, S., 2003. Scenario building as a tool for planning a sustainable transportation system. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 8(5), 323-342. Steg, L. and Gifford, R., 2000. Sustainable transportation and quality of life. Journal of Transport Geography, 13, 59–69 Sturm, P., 2012. Transport & air pollution: part I: background. Graz University of Technology [online] Available at: http://www.ivt.tugraz.at/index.../54-transport-a-air-quality-ss-2012-part-1.html [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Sustainability Report, 2000. A brief history of sustainable development [online] Available at: http://www.sustreport.org/background/history.html [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Taylor, D. 1992. Disagreeing on the basics: environmental debates reflect competing world views. Alternatives, 18(3), 26-33 US Energy Information Administration, 2011. Voluntary reporting of greenhouse gases program [online] Available at: http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/1605/coefficients.html [Accessed 03 June 2012] Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2011. Sustainable transportation and TDM: planning that balances economic, social and ecological objectives [online] Available at: http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm67.htm [Accessed 03 June 2012]. Read More