Monastic Buddhism in South East Asia - Research Paper Example

? Monastic Buddhism in South East Asia Introduction Buddhism is an antique religion based on the Buddha’s theological tradition which is now, in the contemporary era, gaining world-wide popularity. It has its own educational and training set up exercised and practiced in monasteries. In Southeast Asian countries, like other parts of the world, Buddhist monks observe certain codes and practices within temples and no doubt, there is found sharp differences between a layman approach and a monk approach towards religion and its practical aspect. Within a modern context, Buddhism may be divided into two separate schools which are known as Theravada, also known as ‘Southern’, Buddhism and Mahayana, which is called ‘Northern’, Buddhism. Theravada is the main tradition within Sri Lanka and it is thought that this country has had the most ancient incessant history of Buddhism. (Kapstein, 1087) Mahayana, on the other hand, is the leading Buddhist tradition found in Tibet and, although the geneses of this tradition are debatable, it is a diverse and varying tradition from that of the Theravada. (Jones, 121) The Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist conventions share ordinary viewpoints such as the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and Dependent Origination. Other similarities include similar principles such as Anicca, Dukkha, Annata, Sila, Samadhi, and Panna. In addition to this, the two traditions also share a rejection of the notion of a supreme creator. However, Theravada and Mahayana differ on some important aspects such as the final goal of practice and their perspective on the notion of Buddha-nature as well as other doctrinal differences. There are neither rites of passage nor a special ceremony in becoming Buddhist. There is a long process of disciplinary training and education given to those seeking to become a monk (Bhikkhu). Anyone seeking to become a Bhikkhu is known as a novice. There is a ceremony that happens between the novice, the abbot (head of the monastery) and the Sangha (the community of monks). Before the observance, those looking for to turn out to be a monk must shave their heads till bald level and respond questions asked by elder monks and if answered properly and no other monks has any objection to the given answers, this person is acknowledged into the Sangha, the monk community, and in this way, their training commences. Southeast Asian Countries and Monastic Education According to historical findings, Thaton was an operational port of call on the course between India and other prominent countries of southeastern Asia. From religious perspective, missionaries happened to come regularly from the eminent mission training centers of Conjeeveram and Amaravati and proceeded on from there to Cambodia, Thailand, and Java. At that time, though, these missionaries were Theravada Buddhists and the region around Thaton remained Theravada, it should be kept in mind that side by side with the stretch of Theravada, there was also a tough Mahayana movement from China, Malaya, Cambodia, and northern India. When King Anawrahta controlled to the throne in Pagan in northern Myanmar, he was not happy with the religious practice of his people, which was a weird combination of Tantrism, Mahayana, and Hinduism. So, when he held meeting the Arahat Shin Arahan and came to know about the simple yet reflective teaching of the Theravada, he was instantly converted and requested the Arahat to stay at Pagan for the establishment of the Dhamma. At Arahan's suggestion, King Anawrahta asked the king of Thaton for some relics and copies of the Tipitaka, and when he was refused, he attacked and occupied Thaton and brought to Pagan all the relics and copies of the Tipitaka as well as a large number of monks to sermonize the Dhamma. He ruled over most of Myanmar, established communications with the Buddhists of Ceylon, and started a great building program at Pagan which continued for two centuries until the country was overrun by the armies of Kublai Khan. During the two centuries after the destruction of Pagan the life of the people was unstable and the Sangha lost much of its effectiveness, but with the coming of King Dhammaceti (A.D. 1472-1492) a zealous reform movement was instituted. The Myanmarian Sangha had become corrupted, so in order to keep the tradition pure he sent a mission to Ceylon where learned Theras (Elders) re-ordained the Myanmarian monks. As noted above, the Fifth Great Council was held in Mandalay under King Mindon in 1871, giving new life to religion which was threatened by the materialistic influences of the Western invaders. In modern times, after seventy years of ocmains a Theravada Buddhist country and has demonstrated it zeal by convening the Sixth Great Council, which ended in Yangoon on the twenty-five hundredth anniversary of the Buddha's Great Demise. The Mons of Thailand had maintained trade relations with India from pre-Buddhist times, and there were many colonies of Indian traders among them. Traditionally, the arrival of Buddhism in Thailand is attributed to the two celebrated Asokan missionaries, Sona and Uttara, who are said to have brought Buddhism to Myanmar. The Mons of Thaton and the Mons of Thailand were of the same stock, which made it quite natural for the Theravada Buddhism of Thaton to have spread to Thailand, aided by the missionaries who came from Amaravati and Conjeeveram in India. At the same time, Mahayana Buddhism was introduced from Java and Malaya and from Cambodia. When the Khmer culture of Cambodia superseded that of the Mons in the tenth century A.D., it brought in a highly Indianized culture which was more Hindu than Mahayana. That lasted until the Thai race, driven southward from China by the armies of Kublai Khan, overran the country about the end of the thirteenth century. The early Thai kings were impressed by the Theravada culture of Pagan and turned to Ceylon as the seat of the Pure Dhamma for guidance in establishing Theravada Buddhism in their kingdom. Their influence extended to Cambodia and Laos. Throughout all the dynastic changes in Thailand, their adherence to Theravada Buddhism remained strong, as it is to this day. The area which now includes Cambodia, Laos, and Viet Nam, as well as the further areas of Malaya, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali were at one time so completely colonized by Indians that they were commonly known as "farther India." Until about the eighteenth century after the Buddha (thirteenth century A.D.) the Hindu influence was strong in these areas, with Hindu dynasties at various times and an extensive trade with India. (Robinson, 161) The remains of Hindu temples, images of Hindu gods, and numerous inscriptions give evidence of the extensive Hindu culture in southeastern Asia. The Khmers of Cambodia were related to the Mons and seem to have had cultural and political relations with the people of Myanmar in early times. According to the account of I-Ching, the Chinese pilgrim who traveled throughout southeast Asia on his way to India, there were Theravada Buddhists in Cambodia at least until the beginning of the eleventh century after the Buddha ( fifth century A.D.). According to Chinese and early Cambodian accounts, an Indian Brahman established a dynasty in Cambodia about the seventh century after the Buddha ( late first century A.D.), which was the beginning of a series of Hindu rulers who dominated the culture of the area for almost twelve centuries. During this Brahmanical period, Mahayana Buddhism was found in Cambodia but was so closely allied with the culture that it was scarcely distinguishable as a separate religion. The Theravada Tradition The renaissance of Theravada in Ceylon in the Polonnaruwa period (sixteen centuries after the Buddha-eleventh century A.D.) had set in motion currents which came in waves, one after another, to the far shores of Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. Within two centuries, all these countries became fervent followers of Theravada Buddhism and have remained so to this day. In Cambodia, this influence was felt first through Thailand, and then directly from Ceylon and Myanmar. As in Thailand, traces of Hinduism still remain in court ceremonials, but the ruler is the defender of Buddhism and the government lends its aid to the Sangha. It was in the years between the fifteenth and twentieth centuries after the Buddha (ninth to fourteenth centuries A.D.) that the beautiful Buddhist architecture flourished at Angkor. The people of Laos are chiefly from the same tribes which came south from China to settle as Shans in Myanmar and Thais in Thailand, but they have kept some traces of the early inhabitants who must have been related to the Mons since the script of their Tipitakas closely resembles modern Myanmarian rather than the script of Thailand and Cambodia which seems to have been acquired from the Khmers. The history of Buddhism in Laos closely parallels that of Cambodia, with Theravada Buddhism coming in about two centuries after its renaissance at Polonnaruwa in Ceylon and continuing as the chief religion to the present time. While this area was originally chiefly Hindu, the closer ties with China brought Mahayana Buddhism to what is now Viet Nam. Within the past century there has been a movement, starting in Cambodia, to revive Theravada in Viet Nam and there is now a Sangha at Saigon. One of the difficulties in becoming a monk is that all monks must observe 227 rules in total. (Lester , 140) These rules guide them along in their day to day life. The first five are applicable to every Buddhist and are as follows: must not take the life of any living creature; must not steal anyone's possessions; must not be involved in sexual misconduct; must not tell any lies; must not use any alcohol or misuse drugs. These rules are known as the Five Precepts. The next five rules in their list apply only to monks and are as follows: must not eat after midday; must not attend shows where there is music or dancing; must not use any perfume or personal jewellery; must not sleep on raised or upholstered beds; must not accept gifts of gold or silver (money). (Kvaerne, 266) Monks and Monasteries: Education and Training As a Buddhist Monk, in day to day life, they work to protect every living creature and could not bear to see one go hungry or be injured. In fact, in speaking with the representative from the Bhavan Society, he stated that if we gifted the monastery with the stray cat that appeared at our house, which they would accept and take care of it, though it would not be their animal of choice. Due to the religious beliefs that he carries, it would be against them to turn the animal away. (Cousins, 134) The monks take long walks daily so that they may commune with nature and take time to reflect on the goodness that the earth has to offer them. The monks wear simple robes of a neutral color. Many walk with sandals upon their feet, while others wear shoes that are more practical and while some others wear nothing at all upon their feet. Both monks and laymen use the thang-ka--which is sometimes called a mandala--as an aid to meditation. It is a picture of a Buddha or Bodhisattva, surrounded by other Bodhisattvas or guardian deities arranged in the form of a diagram which represents the universe, and decorated with symbols designed to aid recollection. In meditation the pictures serve as the object of concentration and in the higher meditation the devotee concentrates on the higher nature of the deities pictured on the thangka. The recitation of mantras is also prescribed for monks and laymen. A mantra is a word or series of words through which spiritual power is exercised. Some mantras are prescribed in the scriptures for getting good memory or for avoiding misfortune; the most important use is as an aid in concentration. Some mantras, like the six-syllabled mantra of Avalokitesvara, OmMani Padme Hum, refer to a particular deity, and the recitation of such a mantra is the calling upon that deity. (Williams, 189) In Tantrayana, mantras are sometimes used for obtaining spiritual powers. The prayer wheel is a means of repeating the mantras. Thousands of mantras are written and put in the center of the wheel after having been consecrated by rituals performed by Lamas; the turning of the wheel is the same as the recitation of the mantras. (Harvey, 67) Often the mantras are also recited as the wheel is turned. The turning of the wheel by the wind or a water mill is a continuation of the recitation of the mantras in the wheel. Prayer flags are sometimes Bonist, but when used as Buddhist devotion the flag has a mantra written on it, and as it blows in the wind it continues the recitation of the mantra. Three days in every month, including the full-moon days, are holy days on which the people abstain from meat and observe the eight precepts. During the month which commemorates the birth, enlightenment, and passing away of the Buddha --usually in May--no meat is sold and everyone is a vegetarian. There are many festivals throughout the year, such as Sanctification Days, National Day at New Year time, and the big feast which comes after the monks have completed the rainy season retreat. Bonist ceremonies, which are not associated with Buddhism, are performed by groups of laymen who put on monastic robes. They are presided over by astrologers who perform the ceremonies to propitiate the gods, subdue spirits, avert the evil influences of the constellations, ward off hail, bring luck, and produce rain. Monks regularly perform ceremonies based on the Sutras, and on Tantras which consist of a review of the essential moral and philosophical teachings of the scriptures, followed by a solemn resolve to practice the Bodhisattva ideal. Such ceremonies end with the dedication to all beings of the merits accruing from their performance. As a result of their deep devotion to religion the Tibetans emphasize the importance of loyalty and trustworthiness. These qualities inspire the community and give a religious significance to social life. Straightforwardness, usefulness, and humility are the qualities favored by Tibetans. Material and moral loss and defeat are regarded as the consequences of one's past evil deeds for which one must accept responsibility. In the daily practice of their religion, the Tibetans seek to practice self-restraint, patience, and self-purification by acting in accordance with the law of karma. To be benevolent and generous in all their activities is their ideal. As with most creed structures, ritual and civilizing legacy in Buddhism manipulate an adherent’s way of life, by providing guidelines for correct living. The outlook of Buddhism is gauged by the obedience to Buddhist convention and the persistence of its specific cultural inheritance. Tradition may be defined as a long recognized or innate way of accepted wisdom or acting, while cultural legacy is defined as is an appearance of the ways of life developed by a society and passed on from generation to generation. Before analyzing a particular society, one must understand the principles of Buddhism itself. Buddhism has its origins in India, sending out many missionaries into parts of Asia during the second and first centuries BCE. Buddhism was firmly established in the southern and central provinces of Thailand by the sixth century AD. Thai Buddhists have adopted the school of Theravada (often referred to as the Southern tradition), based on the Pali canon. It is thought that this school was developed in Thailand during the thirteenth century AD, sponsored by King Ramkham-haeng. Theravada Buddhism translates to “teaching of the elders”, and aim to practice the original form of Buddhism handed down by Buddha. This form of Buddhism was established during the third century BCE in order to “purify” the religion, and developed the Pali canon, which contains the Tripitaka (Hooker, 1996). Advocates of Theravada Buddhism adhere to the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path, and emphasize monastic life and meditation. The ultimate goal of Theravada is freedom from suffering, and eventually attainment of nirvana, a state of enlightenment that frees one from the cycle of reincarnation. The mae chi are developing their own cultural heritage for renunciant women in the future to adhere to, by the creation of the nunneries themselves. Previously, the only residence of a mae chi was in a temple, however in a separate community (samnak chi) from the men, in accordance with Theravada practices. In more recent times, about 850 nunneries have been established to provide the mae chi with a more comfortable and respectable living arrangement, where they are not encouraged to be subordinate to the male monastery (Falk, p.40). Falk explains how mae chi from a nunnery in central Thailand find it more appropriate to live in such an institution, as monks and nuns should have separate practices. Here, the nuns have the opportunity to practice things restricted in mae chi temple life, such as study, teaching, chanting and administration (Suanmokkh, 2006) Despite not officially being instated as a national religion, Buddhism’s traditions and cultural heritage are maintained through the constitutional monarchy. The royal family is highly venerated by most of the Thai population, and tradition is reflected in the constitution that all Thai kings must be Buddhist. From this information, it would be fair to evaluate that as long as the royal family hold influence over the persons of Thailand, and their authority is unchallenged, Thai people will be influenced by Buddhist ideology and its promotion, and that the tradition of Buddhism being the prominent religion will be chiefly unchallenged. The origins of the Mahayana tradition are unclear and Friedlander (2002) argues that there are many different theories of the origins of this tradition. He suggests that one popular theory is that after the Buddha’s death there was a split in the Sangha and one division retained the original teachings and called themselves Sthaviravada (Pali Theravada). The other, larger group called themselves Mahasamghika and from this emerged the Mahayana tradition. Another view is that the Mahayana developed from the Nikaya Buddhist School. A third theory put forward by Friedlander is that of Hirakawa Akira who suggested that Mahayana developed from lay Buddhist practice. Akira argues that the differences between the two traditions are institutional rather than doctrinal. Whatever the origins of the Mahayana tradition, it can be viewed as a distinct and separate tradition that shares both similarities and differences with the Theravada school. Many similarities exist between the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions and Rahula (1996, p. 458) argues that with regard to the fundamental teachings there are very little differences between the two schools. For example, both traditions accept the Buddha as their teacher. Both the Theravada and Mahayana traditions share a common belief in the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path and Dependent Origination. Also, both schools accept the principles of Anicca (impermanence), Dukkha (suffering), Annata (No-Self), Sila (virtue), Samadhi (mental discipline) and Panna (wisdom) (Rahula 19). In addition to these similarities, both schools also reject the notion of a supreme being who created and rules over the world. Although the Theravada and Mahayana traditions agree on the important teachings noted above, there are also significant areas in which they differ. A major difference between the Theravada and Mahayana traditions is the Bodhisattva ideal as the path to enlightenment. Within the Theravada tradition one follows a personal path to salvation with the final goal being that of the Arhat, who is someone who has reached Nirvana and is free from further rebirths. However, within the Mahayana tradition the goal of practice is become a bodhisattva, or someone who delays Nirvana and undergoes further incarnations to help the suffering of others. Although the Theravada tradition acknowledges the existence of the Bodhisattva, the Mahayanists are dedicated to the ideal and have created many mythical Bodhisattvas (Rahula, 471). Another area where the two traditions differ can be found in their perspectives on Buddha-nature, which is what is known as the human potential for enlightenment. The Mahayana tradition holds that laypersons have the same ability to achieve liberation as that of the monks and nuns, whereas, within the Theravada tradition liberation is difficult for those who are not part of the monastic community. Other doctrinal differences connected with key virtues and differing ideas on metaphysics and ritual also occur between the two traditions. Conclusion Neither the monk nor the layman can attain Enlightenment by himself, however diligent he may be. Everyone must have a spiritual teacher, a guru, a noble and qualified teacher, whose precious instructions are followed with humble submission, wholehearted faith, and solemn resolve. By this means one is inspired and helped to acquire the intellectual and spiritual qualities which lead to Enlightenment. There are various ranks of gurus for giving diverse kind of instruction. Every layman has as numerous as five; while Lamas and monks have a lot more, some of whom provide instructions in easy practices, some in philosophy, some give stimulation, and some give training in Tantra. The Mahayana Sutras call for more advanced teachers who must be compassionate and able to draw others toward the Bodhisattva ideal. The tantric guru must be still more highly developed morally, intellectually, and spiritually. He must have a thorough knowledge of the Tantras and also know how to give instruction in accordance with the individual temperament and ability of each pupil. Once a spiritual contact or link has been recognized with a guru one must be very cautious not to permit it to deteriorate. One must be modest, compliant, observant, and truthful. But obedience need be observed only to those teachings which are right and good. The disciple must regard his teacher as the Buddha himself, for he is the living representative of the Supreme Teacher. Therefore the selection of a guru is important, for upon him depends one's intellectual proficiency, religious life, and spiritual attainments. The process of training followers will fluctuate from guru to guru, but their elementary principles and eventual goal will be the same. Each guru is considered to behave his learner in such a way that he will attain a highly advanced decent character, intellectual adeptness, and spiritual illumination. That should outcome in a sense of liability and a empathy which inspires him to deliver compassionate service to all beings. Mere intellectual understanding, which leads to arrogance, will stand in the way of spiritual arousing, in the same way as spiritual performances without exact intellectual comprehension and ethical practices will be unproductive. Works Cited Cousins, L 1998, ‘Buddhism’. In The new dictionary of religions. Edited by Hinnels, John R. London: Penguin, pages 55-161. Friedlander, P 2002, Buddhism past and present. REL15 Study Guide: Latrobe University. Harvey, P (ed) 2001, Buddhism. London: Continuum. 67 Jones, Ken 1989, The Social Face of Buddhism: London: Wisdom Publications. 121 Kapstein, Matthew 2005, ‘Buddhism: Buddhism in Tibet’. 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