The Vitamin D2 and D3 in Fortification Dairy Products - Research Proposal Example

Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 2 Determine vitamin D2 and D3 in fortification dairy products 2 Introduction 2 Vitamin D and the bones 2 Role of vitamin D in human body 3 Vitamin D deficiency 4 Vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus 5 Toxicity 5 Recommendation vitamin D intake 6 Fortification of milk and food 6 Fortification and food efficiency 7 References: 9 Determine vitamin D2 and D3 in fortification dairy products Introduction In 1928, Adolf Windaus awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry due to his studies on sterols’ constitution and their connection with vitamins. The vitamin in question was vitamin D, which has had a long history before Windaus appeared. In 1650 rickets was known in antiquity and was described in detail as a bone disease caused by vitamin D deficiency (Wolf, 2004).The clinical consequences of vitamin D’s nutritional levels has been related to inflammation, immune system, vascular endothelial health, and cancer because of cell differentiation and growth and cancer cells apoptosis. There are two types of vitamin D exist in human, vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol), and vitaminD3 (cholecalciferol). Vitamin D3 is created in human skin via ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation from 7-dehydrocholesterol to pre-vitamin D3 which is then modified to vitaminD3 by thermo-transformed (Li et al., 2009), generally this form is used in the fortification of foods (Nowson and Margerison, 2002). Vitamin D and the bones Vitamin D is essential for the formation, growth, and repair of bones and for normal calcium absorption and immune function. The main role of vitamin D is to regulate amount of calcium circulating in the blood. Calcium is a mineral acquired through diet that is involved in building bones, muscle contraction, and nerve impulse transmission. Vitamin D helps regulate the absorption of calcium from the small intestine. Too little vitamin D can cause weak, brittle, deformed bones. There is also evidence that vitamin D plays a role in controlling cell differentiation and may help to protect the body from developing some types of cancer. Most people get the vitamin D they need through sunlight exposure (Armas et al., 2004). It can also be obtained through the diet, but very few foods naturally contain vitamin D. These foods include fatty fish, fish liver oil, and eggs. Smaller amounts are found in meat and cheese. Most dietary vitamin D comes from fortified foods, such as milk, juices, yogurt, bread, and breakfast cereals. It has been believed that vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 are having the equivalent effects on the human body though differences in the metabolism of vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 in animals were observed for long time (Li et al., 2009). That is because the conclusion was mostly reached on account of anti-rachitic bioassays. Therefore it is very important to re-evaluate this equivalence assumption. There are a few studies that have compared vitamin D2 and D3 using modern analytic methods. Some studies have suggested that vitamin D3 is more effective than vitamin D2 as supplement of vitamin D for humans. These reports call for more investigations on vitamin D forms and their metabolites. One of these studies showed that D3 increases and maintains 25OHD levels with greater degree than vitamin D2 with differential potency at least 3 times to 10 times (Armas et al., 2004). Although the metabolite 1α, 25(OH)2D is the most active biological form of vitamin D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) is the major circulating form used in the assessment of vitamin D in humans (Li et al., 2009). . Role of vitamin D in human body Vitamin D is involved in a number of processes that are essential for good health, including the following: It helps improve muscle strength and immune function. It helps reduce inflammation. It promotes the absorption of calcium from the small intestine. It helps maintain adequate blood levels of the calcium and phosphate needed for bone formation, mineralization (incorporating minerals to increase strength and density), growth, and repair. Vitamin D deficiency The deficiency of vitamin D is associated with diseases such as childhood rickets, osteomalacia and osteoporosis. Also it has been illustrated that vitamin D deficiency contributes to increased risk of osteoporotic fractures, cancers and autoimmune diseases . Because there is no optimal levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D as measured in serum, the deficiency of vitamin D is defined as the level of 25-hydroxyvitamin D become less than 20 ng per millilitre (50 nmol per litter). It has been predicted that about 1 billion people around the globe have vitamin D deficiency. Several studies have shown that 40 to 100 precent of elderly population in American and Europe from both genders are deficient in vitamin D (Holick, 2007). Furthermore, A number of studies suggest that there is a relationship between high concentrations of serum vitamin D3 with lower rates of breast, ovarian, prostate, and colorectal cancers (Kazmi et al., 2007). Several studies in vitro illustrate that 1,25(OH)2D can inhibit cell proliferation and enhance apoptosis and cell differentiation in breast tumour tissue (Bertone-Johnson, 2009). Vitamin D, glucose and insulin concentrations There is a relationship between vitamin D and alterations in circulating glucose and insulin concentrations. It has been suggested by several studies that adequate intake of vitamin D early in life could decrease the subsequent risk of type 1 diabetes. A study has demonstrated reduction in risk of developing childhood-onset type 1 diabetes in children who received vitamin D supplementation by 33 precent compared with children who did not (Tai et al., 2008). Studies in adults have suggested that the reduction of vitamin D intake as well as vitamin D concentrations are linked with reduced insulin sensitivity and raise the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and metabolic syndrome. For instance, a survey in the NHANES III showed the levels of serum 25- hydroxyvitamin D were inversely related to the type 2 diabetes . The observed associations between vitamin D and glucose metabolism and insulin have not yet been confirmed by interventional studies, which leaves doubt on the conclusions yet However, other possible justifications exist. For instance, increased outdoor exercises may increase the concentrations of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D because of greater exposure to sunlight , signalling that the association between insufficiency of vitamin D and rise in the risk of diabetes is not mediated via reduced the outdoor exercise (Tai et al., 2008). Vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus Vitamin D plays an important role in calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Without vitamin D, around 60 precent of phosphorus and 15 precent of calcium are absorbed. It is because interaction between 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and the vitamin D receptor boosts the phosphorus absorption by approximately 80 precent and calcium absorption between 30 to 40 precent. One study showed that the levels of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D were directly related to bone mineral density for both genders in white, black, and Mexican-Americans and the maximum density was obtained when the level of the 25-hydroxyvitamin D reached 40 ng per milliliter or more. However, when the level of the 25-hydroxyvitamin D become dipped to 30 ng per millilitre or less, there was a remarkable drop in intestinal calcium absorption which is associated with increased parathyroid hormone. Parathyroid hormone enhances the calcium reabsorption as well as stimulates the kidneys to produce 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Furthermore, parathyroid hormone activates osteoblasts that stimulate the preosteoclasts transformation to mature osteoclasts. As a result, osteoclasts dissolve the mineralized collagen matrix in bone and cause osteopenia and osteoporosis and rise the fracture risk (Holick, 2007). Toxicity Intoxication of vitamin D produces hypercalcaemia and manifests in symptoms such as anorexia, nausea, polyuria, constipation, weakness, weight loss, headache, depression, vague aches, stiffness, soft tissue calcification, nephrocalcinosis, hypertension and anaemia. Severe cases of hypercalcaemia could lead to irreversible renal and heart failure. The toxicity of vitamin D occurs due to excessive oral intake through supplementation but not by prolonged exposure either to sun light or to UV light. There is no clinical or biochemical evidence to show toxicity with doses up to 4 000 IU daily. High doses injections (300 000 IU) at intervals at least for 3 to 6 months have been shown as relatively toxic, but it is yet to be established completely (Diamond et al., 2005). In general, intoxication of Vitamin D is extremely rare but it might happen due to intentional ingestion or inadvertent use of excessively high doses (Holick, 2007). Recommendation vitamin D intake Vitamin D is stored in fat and muscle and utilized when the body runs low on it. However, for patients who are vitamin D-deficient, it important to replenish the stores. Whereas a large dose is needed to treat vitamin D-deficient patients, the daily recommended dosage for vitamin D ranges between 400–600 IU (Diamond et al., 2005). In Australians, the average estimated intake is low and varies between 1.2–2.6 µg/day. The CSIRO National Dietary Survey showed that very few adults reach 10µg/day. Amongst males, the highest intake dosage was 5.6 g/day and average intake was 2.6–3.0 μg/ day while among females it was 2.0–2.2 μg/day. The Australia New Zealand Food Authority estimated that the average intake of vitamin D was (2.0–2.4 μg/day) for both genders (Nowson and Margerison, 2002). In the US, products of fluid milk are fortified with vitamin D since 1930s..FDA has established many regulations regarding add of the vitamin to milk. While milk fortification is optional, fortified milk must involve 400 IU of vitamin D (Hicks et al., 1996). Fortification of milk and food Fortification of food with vitamin D can be mandatory for food that must have a certain amount of the vitamin or even voluntary on part of manufacturers to enhance the food's value by vitamin D fortification. Should the food be fortified or not is generally regulated by the food authorities. In the United States, many manufacturers fortify a great number of foods with vitamin D such as milk, margarine and breakfast cereals. In Europe, rules governing the fortification of food with vitamin D vary from country to country. For instance Finland has 23 types of margarine fortified with vitamin D whereas in United Kingdom whole milk is not fortified with vitamin D but margarine is fortified. In Australia, some types of foods are mandatorily to be fortified like edible oil spreads and table margarine, while some foods are voluntary fortification such as skimmed milks, powdered milk, yogurts and table confections and cheese. Since 1996, in New Zealand, food fortification has been permitted for margarine and dairy food. The main sources of vitamin D in fortified food varies as per the fortification practices. In Australia, it has been estimated that margarine provides up to 48% of the total vitamin D intake to men and women. In the United Kingdom, the major source of vitamin D is cereal products with 33% . Fortification and food efficiency Many experts believe that using a fortified food as a means to increase levels of vitamin D intake cannot be successful as the actual level of vitamin D in fortified foods varies greatly. Also, people who need to follow restricted dietary intakes cannot get the fundamental benefit from fortified food. One study in community-dwelling elderly people has assessed the efficiency of vitamin D in fortified milk on serum vitamin D. The outcome of this study was that after daily use of 500ml of fortified milk for three months there was a significant increase in the level of serum 25OHD, however; this increase was insufficient to treat vitamin D-related deficiencies . In the United States, vitamin D has been fortified in milk for more than 50 years and all fluid milk forms/ products are with vitamin D in an average of about 100 IU per 240 ml . Another study in England has shown that the level of serum 25OHD were higher in people who consume margarine every day than people who consume margarine less often but in both groups the level of serum 25OHD was still low to be counted. The study found that milk fortification is still far from optimal due to the skewed distribution of milk intake. However, combination of milk fortification with 1.1 μg/ 100 g with butter/margarine 9.5 μg/100 g could be optimal. There is a widespread opinion that fortified food may not be serving the purpose of an intended use to counter a deficiency in the elderly . Fortified milk with vitamin D could contain previtamins created from D3 either because of pasteurization or other steps of heat treatment . It has been reported that bovine milk contains 240 IU of vitamin D activity per litre, 85% of which is water soluble, attributed to vitamin D3-sulphate. Other reports found that vitamin D3-sulphate has a very low biological activity and their contribution to the vitamin D activity of milk is small . These days cow milk and human milk become inadequate enough to be a good resource of vitamin D with ranges between 4 to 40 IU/l (0.1–1.0 µg/l) . This is the main reason for milk being fortification with 7.5–10g/L of vitamin D3 as water-dispersible beadlet . Another reason is that the consumption of fluid milk has declined in most parts of the world. For example, in the United States, milk consumption per capita has declined in the last 50 years . It has been illustrated that 30 percent of vitamin D activity losses in the process of vitamin D supplementation due to homogenization, separation, thermal treatment, light exposure and other practices in manufacturing . One study in same field evaluated the impact of increased vitamin D fortification to 250 IU per serving on the sensory characteristics as well as vitamin D stability in different dairy products HTST-processed 2% fat milk, UHT-processed 2% fat chocolate milk, and low-fat strawberry yogurt during processing and storage. It was concluded that fortified dairy products with vitamin D at 250 IU per serving was stable in all shelf lives. furthermore, fortification with vitamin D has no impact on the sensory characteristics of these products (Hanson and Metzger, 2010). The most target groups for vitamin D fortified foods are children and elderly people . As a result of that, milk with under-fortification limit of vitamin D can increase the risk of rickets and osteomalacia while over-fortification can lead to intoxication and other untoward consequences . With the expanding range of fortificant compounds available and the need to use various vehicles according to the designated target groups, there is need to consider the technologies best suited to achieve a fortified product with the desired properties. Ideally, a fortified food should: Be commonly consumed by the target population; Have a constant consumption pattern with a low risk of excess consumption; Have good stability during storage; Be relatively low in cost; Be centrally processed with minimal stratification of the fortificant; Have no interaction between the fortificant and the carrier food; Be contained in most meals with availability unrelated to socio-economic status; Be linked to energy intake. Selection of an appropriate vehicle is a critical step in successful fortification. In many cases identification of suitable vehicles is made difficult by the absence of reliable information on dietary habits of the target population. References: ARMAS, L. A. G., HOLLIS, B. W. & HEANEY, R. P. 2004. Vitamin D2 is much less effective than vitamin D3 in humans. Journal of clinical endocrinology & metabolism, 89, 5387. BERTONE-JOHNSON, E. R. 2009. Vitamin D and breast cancer. Annals of epidemiology, 19, 462-467. CHEN, T. C., SHAO, Q., HEATH III, H. & HOLICK, M. F. 1993. An update on the vitamin D content of fortified milk from the United States and Canada. New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 1507-1507. DIAMOND, T., EISMAN, J., MASON, R., NOWSON, C., PASCO, J., SAMBROOK, P. & WARK, J. 2005. Vitamin D and adult bone health in Australia and New Zealand: a position statement. Med J Aust, 182, 281-285. HANSON, A. & METZGER, L. 2010. Evaluation of increased vitamin D fortification in high-temperature, short-time-processed 2% milk, UHT-processed 2% fat chocolate milk, and low-fat strawberry yogurt. Journal of dairy science, 93, 801-807. HICKS, T., HANSEN, A. & RUSHING, J. 1996. Procedures used by North Carolina dairies for vitamins A and D fortification of milk. Journal of dairy science, 79, 329-333. HOLICK, M. F. 2007. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med, 357, 266-281. HOLICK, M. F., SHAO, Q., LIU, W. W. & CHEN, T. C. 1992. The vitamin D content of fortified milk and infant formula. New England Journal of Medicine, 326, 1178-1181. KAZMI, S. A., VIETH, R. & ROUSSEAU, D. 2007. Vitamin D3 fortification and quantification in processed dairy products. International Dairy Journal, 17, 753-759. LI, B., BYRJALSEN, I., GLENDENNING, P., HENRIKSEN, D. B., HOECK, H. C., TARANTO, M., VASIKARAN, S., FRASER, W. D., CHRISTIANSEN, C. & QVIST, P. 2009. Selective monitoring of vitamin D2 and D3 supplementation with a highly specific 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 immunoassay with negligible cross-reactivity to 25-hydroxyvitamin D2. Clinica Chimica Acta, 404, 144-148. NOWSON, C. A. & MARGERISON, C. 2002. Vitamin D intake and vitamin D status of Australians. Medical journal of Australia, 177, 149-152. PERALES, S., ALEGR A, A., BARBER , R. & FARRE, R. 2005a. Review: determination of vitamin D in dairy products by high performance liquid chromatography. Food science and technology international, 11, 451. PERALES, S., DELGADO, M., ALEGR A, A., BARBER , R. & FARRE, R. 2005b. Liquid chromatographic determination of Vitamin D3 in infant formulas and fortified milk. Analytica chimica acta, 543, 58-63. REV, O. 1997. Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in Canada and the United States: importance to health status and efficacy of current food fortification and dietary supplement use. Moon. STENE, L. C. & JONER, G. 2003. Use of cod liver oil during the first year of life is associated with lower risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes: a large, population-based, case-control study. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 78, 1128. TAI, K., NEED, A. G., HOROWITZ, M. & CHAPMAN, I. M. 2008. Vitamin D, glucose, insulin, and insulin sensitivity. Nutrition, 24, 279-285. WOLF, G. 2004. The discovery of vitamin D: the contribution of Adolf Windaus. The Journal of nutrition, 134, 1299.  Read More