Japanese-Californian Internment Camps and the Social and Psychological Impact of Internment - Research Paper Example

? History of the Japanese-Californian Internment Camps and the Social and Psychological Impact of Internment Abstract The surprise attack on Pearl Harbor was a day that shocked a nation, turning average American citizens into crazed, anti-Asian racists. Feeling secure and impenetrable from wars fought with the buffer of two oceans and thousands of miles, most Americans never imagined a war in their own backyard, let alone a direct attack on a military base on United States soil. The focus of my research will provide insight into the Japanese relocation and internment, the damage this relocation had on the Japanese-Americans psyche post-internment, and how the events of the Pearl Harbor attack shaped the Japanese in California. Extensive research into the accounts of the forced relocation and internment will uncover a tragic shift to the Japanese Californian culture, their quest to assimilate and recover in a post WWII world and the legacy that remains today. Although the core of my research will be on the social impact that the relocation and internment had on the Japanese Californian psyche, I also plan on providing a historical foundation for the key events that led to the dramatic act of forced removal by the United States government. Starting with Executive Order 9066, I plan to discuss the formation of the Wartime Civilian Control Administration and War Relocation Authority, the planning and staging of the assembly centers and then life behind the fences of internment camps. This dramatic experience of internment caused Japanese Californians to be ashamed of their heritage, and left a deep and lingering scar that took two generations of recovery. Introduction The relocation and internment of Japanese-Americans during the World War II had a phenomenal impact on their identity, culture, and their American experience. The Second War provided Japanese Americans with a mixed experience; for many, who faced forcible relocation from their homes and businesses, it was a shocking experience. Wartime embedded a deep and shameful scar on the American conscience. During this period, Americans of Japanese ancestry underwent forced detention devoid of due process. The roots of the ensuing prejudice of Americans of Japanese ancestry can be traced to myths, stereotypes, and unfounded fears persistent within the society. The stereotypes and fears proliferating at the time combined with economic self-interest contributed to the rise in racial antipathy (CWRC 1997, p.27).1 This provided a rich ground for the growth of politics of prejudice and resultant discriminatory laws. This bred hostility towards Americans of Japanese descent, and failure in political leadership culminated in the relocation and internment of the Japanese Americans during wartime years. The rationale for the prejudicial policy hinged on military necessity (Lee 1998, p.405).2 The relocation and internment of Americans of Japanese ancestry was in essence racial discrimination, which resulted to emotional pain and suffering of the detainees. The severity of the relocation and internment was compounded by the fact that Americans of Japanese ancestry remained detained, while some of their sons were fighting in the military. The Japanese-Americans were fighting to defend the precise rights their families that were blatantly denied. The execution of the order was highly discriminative as espoused by the fact that there was no exclusionary order against citizens of either German or Italian ancestry, both of which were “enemies” during the war. Official actions against supposed enemy aliens of other nationalities exhibited high individualization and selectiveness compared to those actions imposed on the ethnic Japanese. The perceived disloyalty is disputable judging by the record number of Nisei soldiers who came back from the battle fields of Europe as the top, decorated and distinguished combat unit of World War II. The Context of Relocation and Internment Policy The exclusion and removal of ethnic Japanese followed a long and ugly history of a persistent West Coast anti-Japanese agitation matched with discriminative legislation (NG 2002, p.6).3 The antipathy and enmity towards Japanese Americans dominated much of the community life in the West Coast states for close to forty years preceding the Pearl Harbor attack. Immigration from Japan faced significant limitation within the state of California in 1908 and eventual outlaw in 1924. In the late 1930s, the Justice Department assembled a list of 2,000 Japanese resident aliens, thought to be “dissidents” and potentially “dangerous.” Some of the Japanese in the list comprised of leaders of civic groups, businessmen, Buddhist priests, language teachers, and martial arts instructors. This can be considered as a build up to the eventual relocation and internment of Japanese Americans. Japanese immigrants were barred from holding American Citizenship even though their children assumed American citizenship via naturalization (Lee 1998, p.409).4 California together with other Western states had also instituted prohibitions against Japanese immigrants. The anti-Japanese sentiment emanated from jealousy and fear of domination, and persisted regardless of the fact that Americans of Japanese ancestry never exceeded three percent of the population of California. By then, California had the biggest concentration of ethnic Japanese. The hostility hinged on economically motivation as white, American groups begun to feel the heat of intense competition, especially in the chief occupation of the immigrants, agriculture. The ongoing anti-Japanese sentiments fed on racial stereotypes and fears (Heinrichs 2011, p.10).5 In addition, citizen Japanese generation was also reaching the age of the majority (voting age) in the 1940s, and thus, had turned out to be opportune targets of political demagogues and key parties that indulged in anti-Japanese rhetoric and programs. From 1939-1943, the FBI compiled the Custodian Detention Index on citizens based on census data, mapping supposed enemy aliens as well as foreign nationals. The index’s compilation arose from interests of national security. Making and Justifying the Decision The then Secretary of War and other top military officers engineered the proposal for exclusion of the Japanese Americans from the West Coast. President Roosevelt relied on the Secretary of War recommendation in issuing Executive Order 9066. The overriding justification for the measures taken at the time was military necessity. A Final Report delivered in 1943 cited a number of factors that supported the exclusion decision. The reasons included arms and contrabands found in ethnic Japanese homes, concentration of American Japanese around military-sensitive areas, and high number of Japanese ethnic organizations along the West Coast that might have sheltered pro-Japanese outlooks or activities (Burgan 2007, p.36).6 Executive Order 9066 President D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, approximately ten weeks after the Pearl Harbor attack. The order came in the backdrop of rising prejudice and wartime hysteria across America soon after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. The order awarded power to exclude persons, citizens, or aliens from designated areas. The execution of the order was fashioned to provide security against sabotage, espionage, and fifth column activity (CWRI 1997, p.47).7 After the release of the order, Americans of Japanese ancestries faced exclusion from living, working, or travelling on the West Coast of the U.S. The prohibition applied to the generation of Japanese immigrants banned from American citizenship pursuant to Federal law. Initially, the relocation followed “voluntary relocation.” The failure of the policy prompted the Army to establish “Assembly Centers,” comprising of temporary quarters housed at racetracks or fair grounds. The latter were upgraded to “Relocation Centers,” which comprised of barrack camps located in isolated areas, in the West. The established camps featured barbed wire surrounding and armed guarding by military police. The policy of exclusion, removal, and detention affected close to 120,000 people. The policies thrived regardless of the citizens’ demonstration of loyalty to the U.S. The execution of the order also disregarded the reality that there was no acknowledged act of spying, rebellion, or fifth column activity registered as commissioned by an American of Japanese ethnic (NG 2002, p.55).8 How events of the Pearl Harbor attack shaped the Exclusionary Policy Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. The surprise attack, that crippled American fleet, heightened concerns that the Japanese could have been readying a full-scale attack on the West Coast of U.S. The hysteria was also heightened by Japan’s rapid military conquest in the large portions of Asia and the Pacific between 1936 and 1942. After imperial Japan attack on Pearl Harbor, a widespread belief flourished, reinforced by a statement released by Frank Knox, the then Secretary of War, that the attack was supported through sabotage by Americans of Japanese descent in Hawaii. The propagated beliefs lacked facts and were purely malicious. Although the government knew that the facts to be unfounded, the government did little to disabuse the prevailing public belief. Life behind Barbed Wire Relocation camps and the assembly featured immense suffering and deprivation, compounded by the fact that no charges were brought to the detainees. From December 7, 1941 up to September 28, 1947, the U.S. utilized its military powers to detain more than 110,000 Americans of Japanese ancestry and resident aliens. Most of Japanese living in the West Coast underwent confinement in barbed centers under armed guard (NG 2002, p.32).9 As parents and families remained relocated and interned in the camps, young Japanese-Americans were drafted into the military or volunteered to defend their country during the war. The incarceration faced resistance from some quarters due to the obvious violation of constitutional rights. Many of those who resisted the detention spent close to three years in a Federal penitentiary after the camps closure as a punishment for their resistance. Although departure from the camps was possible after loyalty review, most of the detainees spent the wartime years behind the barbed wire. The prohibition was on place until in December 1944, when it was lifted. Effect of Exclusion and Detention: Concentration Camp Experience The policy of exclusion, removal and detention inflicted tremendous human cost. Besides the obvious economic cost heralded by cost of homes and sold businesses, or abandoned during the time of distress, the detainees also suffered social and psychological injury. The incarceration was also significantly injurious to the career and professional advancement of the subjects. The relocation and internment had tremendous social impact on Japanese-Americans psyche as it made them feel socially isolated and disadvantaged (Daniels 2001, p.159).10 The state encompassed culturally insulated and isolated communities. The Japanese faced exclusion from political life through the prohibition against naturalization. The instituted roadblocks rendered economic and social participation of Japanese Americans almost impossible. The social disconnect within the community also emanated from the evident differences of language and religion. The prevalent prejudice, discrimination, and segregation within the American society drove a wedge between the social groups. The social impacts of the relocation and internment of Americans of Japanese ancestry were immense. The exclusionary policy led to a significant loss of liberty besides resulting to increased personal stigma to those suspected of being disloyal to their country’s cause or ideals. These perpetuated social boundaries within the society leading to distrust between various sections of the society (Daniels 2001, p.162).11 The relocation and detention orchestrated a shift in Japanese California culture. California in 1900-1920 was highly heterogeneous and attracted people from far and wide owing to its expansive resources, space, and expanding economy. Hence, the state comprised of a high population makeup by citizen newcomers. In the period prior to the relocation and detention, Californian society can be described as disintegrated, unstable, mobile, and loosely organized due to the popular anti-Japanese sentiment. Despite the adverse social effects that the relocation and detention visited upon the American population of Japanese ancestry, they still sustained pride in their Japanese culture and honored traditional social values. This arose from the fact that the Japanese emulated and subscribed to their culture characterized by pride, strong moral convictions, and reverence for community cohesiveness. The cultural patterns of Japanese society remained deeply transplanted into the Japanese life in the U.S. Although the camps were places of suffering and deprivation, the detainees managed to sustain cohesive group relationships. As a result, the internal solidarity within the Japanese community remained intact. In the detention centre, people lived in deplorable conditions manifested by substandard housing, inadequate nutrition, and inadequate health care. The relocation and internment destroyed the livelihoods of Japanese-Americans. Psychological Impact of Japanese Relocation and Internment Feelings of Hopelessness The psychological injury occasioned by the detention was apparent among the detainees. The Japanese had grown increasingly depressed owing to monumental feelings of helplessness and personal insecurity. Most of the victims of the internment reportedly had a feeling of hopelessness emanating from their relocation experience (Nagata, Trierweiler and Talbot 1999, p.20).12 Hopelessness within the camps is best exhibited by Japanese terms such as shikttaganai, which translates into “cannot be helped,” employed to express the heart wrenching experiences. The hopelessness did not merely end with the closing of the camps but carried on long afterwards. The sense of hopelessness also featured accompanying feelings of low-self esteem and lack of motivation compounded by the trauma of forcible relocation. Self –Identity The incarceration had a tremendous impact on the evacuee’s self-identity. Some camps featured “Americanization” programs directed at reeducating the detainees to fit in the supposed American society. The programs significantly undermined Japanese heritage. The internment produced conflicting attitudes concerning ethnic self-identity whereby the victims felt insecure about practicing their own culture. Mistrust of Authority The relocation and internment of Americans of Japanese ancestry heralded an overreach of authority, a fact that was later openly acknowledged by their government for failing to protect civil liberties. Consecutively, most of the victims of the relocation and internment harbored resentment of governmental authority long after the camps’ closure. The detention camps had a profound impact on the Japanese self image. This prompted use of psychological defense mechanisms so as to preserve a sense of honor and self worth. The Japanese Americans who testified at the CWRIC hearings as well as research interviews with Issei, Nisei, and Sansei in Southern California demonstrated that the Japanese Americans suffered a lot of psychological damage. Japanese are commonly proud people with deep concern for the honor, which has a significant influence in programming personal behavior. The Japanese culture mainly expresses the importance of honor and esteem to the race. The Japanese Americans also felt dismayed and ashamed of their heritage due to their culture that taught that when one of the Japanese wronged, everyone is disgraced. The incarceration of Japanese Americans brought about mixed feelings of guilt and shame coupled with those of horror and anger (Nagata and Yuzuru 2002, p.42).13 Nisei educated in the American schools and had internalized the American values and identified the authorities as strong and legitimate authority. Thus, the turn of events manifesting the fact that America was far from melting pot of culture came as a shock to them. The incarceration inflicted a lot of emotional anguish. Incarceration period was a time of intense fear, confusion, and anxiety for West Coast Japanese. The detainees in the camps suffered immense depression and shame. The evacuees had conflicting feelings concerning race due to a sense of betrayal, anger, and hurt, which hindered them from attaining a true sense of self worth. Impact on Children Research conducted to ascertain the impacts that the incarceration had on children points out that there was a cross-generational impact centering on children of internment victims. The psychological trauma experienced by their parents showed a linkage to their children; thus, the children of Japanese Americans in camps were deemed to have “inherited” the effects. Scientific studies have not been extensively done to ascertain the psychological effects of the camps on a quantitative level. Full assessment of the same would be difficult since most of the former evacuees still employ defense mechanisms of repression and denial (Nagata and Takeshita 1998, p.588).14 The pain and trauma inflicted by the incarceration is not easily accessible at a conscious level, and hence, they are unaware of the effect they have in their lives. Despite their release, many of the detainees continued to suffer psychologically long after their release. The psychological wounds inflicted during the wartime can be considered to have somewhat cured, but the marks from the experiences painfully remain real in the minds of those subjected to a life of suffering and deprivation in the camps. The Decision to End the Detention By October 1942, there were approximately 100,000 evacuees in relocation camps. The strong likelihood for American victory in the War in June 1942 made the possibility of a Japanese attack on America lack credibility. The strong gains made in the war diluted the defense that the government could cling to in perpetuating the policy. Thus, any defense of the ongoing detention and exclusion became increasingly untenable. However, besides the ineffective leave plan run by the War Relocation Authority, the government did not have a concise exit plan. The inability to distinguish the loyal from disloyal entrenched a culture of total control where exclusion was an accepted norm. Loyalty review program formed part of government’s decision, which incorporated the interests of the evacuees. Those who avowed loyalty to America were eligible for release. The exclusion officially came to an end in December 1944. Post-internment effects: Postwar experience During wartime years, most Americans were unaware of this policy. Even among Japanese Americans themselves, there was apparent reluctance to deliberate openly on the incarceration from the mid-1940 through the 1950s. Nevertheless, in the 1960s, there was a noticeable change, whereby many Japanese Americans became increasingly active in social and political movements. For instance, in 1967, most of Japanese Americans engaged in sensitization movements at national level urging for repeal of title II of the Internal Security Act of 1950. The repeal of the law in 1971 gave the Japanese Americans confidence in the power of national social movements. It was during this period that Japanese Americans in the West Coast states launched “pilgrimages” to the World War II incarceration sites to commemorate wartime experiences. Through the efforts of vocal Nisei and Sansei, Japanese Americans launched grass-root political and social campaigns directed at redressing the wrongs committed against them by their own government during the World War II (Heinrichs 2011, p.64).15 The lessons learnt were enormous, not just for a single community, but the entire population. The Japanese-American community sought to sensitize the American public on the violation of constitutional rights and the capability for power abuse by the authorities, as well as the military. The community also sought redress for persons directly affected. In response to the appeals for redress emanating from a wide section of the Japanese American Society, the congress created the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians The mandate of the Commission centered on reviewing and analyzing the official government contention, which stated that the actions were historically accepted and that the exclusion together with forced displacement and detention of Japanese-Americans could be justifiable subject to military necessity. In particular, the Commission probed the facts and circumstances surrounding Executive Order No.9066 issued on February 19, 1942. The Commission also reviewed directives of U.S. military forces, which required the relocation and, in instances, detention of American Citizens in internment camps. Furthermore, the Commission was mandated to issue a report to Congress detailing recommendations based on its findings. One of the many recommendations by the commission detailed a proposal to establish a program directed at educating the American public on the pertinent issues encountered during the deliberations. Based on the Commission recommendations, the Congress adopted, and the President Ronald Reagan assented into law, Public Law 100-383 (The Civil Liberties Act of 1988). The act availed redress for Japanese-Americans; each of the living survivors received $20,000 for the forced detention. Total payments for reparation to Japanese Americans incarcerated in the detention camps mounted to $ 1.2 billion. In 1989, the then President Bush issued a formal apology for the discriminatory practices visited upon the Japanese Americans during the wartime years, especially for detention without charges or trial and on account of ethnic background. The legislation created The Civil Liberties Public Education Fund geared at sponsoring research, as well as public, educational activities with the core aim of illuminating the events surrounding the forced evacuation, transfer, and internment of American citizens of Japanese ancestry. Congress adopted House Resolution 442 grounded in the Commission’s conclusions and recommendation. The resolution offered an apology to anyone whose constitutional rights were trampled upon during the Second World War. Legacy that remains The wartime events brought to the forefront of the national attention the dangers of racial profiling. This episode was a learning process for the American society and can be regarded as enlightening and empowering. The American soul has learnt immensely from the World War II events, especially Japanese-American relocation and internment. The happenings of that time avail insights on how travesty of justice can easily occur to a minority within American democracy. This is a close reminder of how vulnerable a state’s social, moral or legal parameters can be, especially at times of crises such as social unrest, during political crises, during war, or during economic recessions (Buchanan 2003, p.20).16 Hysteria can easily paralyze a country’s conscience to the extent of a government targeting its own citizenry perceived to be unpopular at a time of crises. Conclusion The happenings of the wartime represented a contest between advocates of national defense and proponents of the civil rights. On the cover, the two forces can be depicted as sharing a motivation of keeping America safe together with its values and freedom. Whereas the intention of the two forces may be genuine, the execution of their objectives inherently placed them at loggerheads. The authorities in America during the World War II discounted the potential of the prevailing anti-Japanese sentiments, which led to a biased analysis of the events as authorities deemed the incarceration as suitable, essential, and humane. It may be impossible to compensate for the sins of the past, but it is critical to learn from past errors in order to refrain from repeating the mistakes in the future, especially in a post 9/11 society. The relocation and internment of the Americans of Japanese descent is in effect an antithesis of the freedoms, the bedrock of American constitution. The Japanese-American incarceration presents valuable lessons to be learned from the national experience. In post 9/11 America, the national experience during wartime presents a healthy debate on the balance between civil liberties and national security. The events have aroused debate on Executive Order that allows employment of military tribunals, detention of suspects, and suspension of civil liberties. The Japanese-American relocation and internment avails an opportune chance for reviewing the American internment policy to ensure that it reflects the aspirations of every American citizen. Bibliography Buchanan, Katherine. “Barbed Wire Neurosis: Education, Assimilation, and Japanese American Internment.” Stanford Historical Society 27, no. 3 (2003): 3-23. Burgan, Michael. The Japanese American Internment: Civil Liberties Denied. Minneapolis: White-Thomson. 2007. Daniels, Roger, Taylor Sandra, and Kitano Harry. Japanese Americans, from Relocation to Redress. Utah: University of Utah Press. 2001. Heinrichs, Ann. The Japanese American Internment: Innocence, Guilt, and Wartime Justice. Tarrytown: Cavendish. 2011. Lee, Lee, and Zane Nolan. Handbook of Asian American Psychology. London: Sage Publications. 1998. Nagata, Donna and Takeshita Yuzuru. “Coping and Resilience across Generations: Japanese Americans and the World War II Internment.” Psychoanalytic Review 85, no. 1 (1998): 587-613. Nagata, Donna and Yuzuru Takeshita. “Psychological Reactions to Redress: Diversity Among Japanese Americans Interned during World War II.” Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 8, no. 1 (2002): 41-59. Nagata, Donna, Trierweiler Steven, and Talbot Rebecca. “Long-term Effects of Internment during Early Childhood on Third-Generation Japanese Americans.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 69, no. 1 (1999): 19-29. NG, Wendy. Japanese American Internment during World War II: A History and Reference Guide. Westport: Greenwood. 2002. United States Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Personal Justice Denied. Washington: University of Washington Press. 1997. Read More