Life in Ancient Egypt - Research Paper Example

Egypt has had a long history of political strength and legacy. It has throughout the ancient times leading on topresent day politics shown influence and participation of women in the political field. Society as a whole is an amalgamation of the participation and contribution of the male and female. A society without the due participation of the two would lead to handicapped outlook. The political spectrum is no exception to this rule. While some may remark Egypt as a country and society dominated by the presence and influence of men, there were number of women who made their presence felt through their achievement and ascending to representative pillars. Egypt’s society has shown the equal and effective participation of women in the political spectrum from time to time. The traces and names can be stretched as far as the ruling ladies from the days of Pharaohs to the movements that took place in the middle of 20th century and saw active participation of women in the different sectors. The middle of 20th century saw radical movements and they were followed by the feminist movements in those days. Introduction: The understanding and determination of the role of women in the Egypt’s history can be traced all the way from the times of B.C era. There were an array of female individuals who went on to represent Egypt in the political corridors of decision making and they left behind a successful legacy that was later on followed by the upcoming generations. This paper would look into the step wise appearance of the female leads in the Egypt’s political scenario who contributed in one way or the other. History has shown women being in the seat of authority over different periods and important epochs of political phases. Unlike other parts of the world where women have often seen ceremonial accession to power, in the case of Egypt, the women have not only enjoyed authority but they have also worked towards the rights protection of the women. From the queens to the head of political party in present Egyptian’s political outlook, the women have had their experiences of various sorts and time and again they have risen to the seat of power and authority. The number of women who may have ascended to the power making and rules formulating might be a little less in number, but other social workers, and women who have remained integral part of the political landscape are innumerable .Throughout the history of Egypt’s political scenario, we see the women having played their role in a direct or indirect manner. The study of Egyptian history would reveal that the women have participated in parallel with the men through different phases and different spectrums of social life. Political spectrum is one of the most celebrated one in this regard. Key words: Women emancipation, feminism movement, political participation, parliament. The following is a list of few of the many female leads that went on to rule and be known as the Queens of Egypt. Hatshepsut: She was one of the earliest female rulers that Egypt history saw. Her period and reign was characterized by the days of peace, prosperity and development of the art. One thing that is relatively common amongst the most of the female leaders of Egypt was the valuing of the art and architecture; they would pursue it in one way or the other. Hatshepsut’s reign was no exception to this rule and custom. She left behind a legacy in the form of temple that was constructed during her days of authority and power. Deir el Bahri was the famous temple that is associated to her days of ruling (Monderson, p 48). She ruled for over decade and a half and set precedence for other female leads that would later on come to dominate the spectrum of political corridors and establish their names. In the era after her spouse passed away, she single handedly took over the affairs of Egypt and handled them quite well. Nefertiti: The next in line was Nefertiti. She was famous for number of things. Thing ranged between her beauty; to the controversy created on account of her shift from following the ancestral religion. On account of her admiration and liking for art and architecture, she established sculptures that have become an important part of the Egypt’s ancient history and are preserved till date. The she ruled over during the 14th B.C era (Jacob and Apple, p 416). Other characteristic features that made her significantly known for her existence were the fact that she was the spouse to Akhenaton. She for the first time in her era took a shift with regard to following and introducing the concept of monastic religious values. This was a relatively new concept in those days, as Egypt has had a history of number of gods being worshiped. However she saw a reverting from her belief and concept and she in the later stages of her rule and reign, reverted to the old customary and traditional following of gods. Cleopatra: Cleopatra remains one of the most celebrated and famous Egyptian female ruler and Queen from the days of ancient Egyptian history. It was not just her ruling style or her mere accession to the seat of decision making, rather other factors that contributed to her stardom and fame. Not all of these factors were something that a ruler may look up to, yet her genius and beauty came about with a flaw of an alleged love affair that she was engaged in outside her tribe and dynastic corridors (Griffin, p 378). She lived on towards the last days of the B.C era and was one of the last female rulers from that day. She originally hailed from the Ptolemaic dynasty of the Egyptian society. She did not have any strong successors after her and although she was succeeded by her son, yet her era is considered as one of the last few concrete days of power and authority shared and enjoyed by the female leads towards the end of B.C era. Cleopatra got associated with Julius Caesar in an unexpected manner. Julius Caesar had come to Egypt for purpose of conquering over and leveling the scores, but ended up falling for Cleopatra. The two had a relationship that is still mentioned in the context of affairs between rulers from different regions. Cleopatra had a child named Caesarian, who ruled for a short span of time after the demise of Cleopatra. He was the product of relationship between Julius Caesar and Cleopatra. Not just her life and her activities, but the end deal of Cleopatra was a completely unique one. She did not die of suffering a bullet or wound at the hands of enemy, rather she brought an end to her life. As a result of her death, Egypt was taken over by Roman Empire at that time and it marked the initial days of the downfall of the Egyptian glorious days that had seen the likes of Nefertiti and Cleopatra to name a few. Cleopatra had initially lost control of power and authority and was sidelined. It was through the assistance the Roman rulers and warriors that she managed getting back the control. She went on to become the ruler for a considerable time afterwards. Hence her second coming as a ruler can be attributed to the Romans arrival and her affiliation with Julius Caesar. Cleopatra’s affair and love tale was not just limited to Julius Caesar, later in the course; Cleopatra went on to become mother of three mother children. This time it was from Mark Antony. The achievements of the female are not just limited to the battle fields. Various researchers and historians have looked in to this aspect to determine extent to which they exercised control over the region and their authority. Dr Fletcher has taken up the task of determining the level of influence these female leads had on the society and the social rules that were set forth in those days. Co-relation to the social development: Since the middle of 20th century Egypt as a country and as a society has undergone massive development. More so, towards the later part of the 20thcentury. Despite being run by military dictators for longer span of control and authority, the general realization and sense for more empowerment of women has risen. This has reflected in their political scenario and political field. With the arrival of over 1500 percent rise in the women’s seats in the parliament, the progress may well be declared to be well on course towards women’s true representation in true spirit. One major outbreak of development took place in the same regard towards 1942 when Egyptian Feminine Party came into existence. The purpose was to revive the lost glory and provide the women with a platform and voice to protect their rights on social, political, individual and collective front. Tausret: Tausret also enjoys repute in the league of the prominent ladies from the ancient days of Egyptian history. She ruled towards the 1200 B.C. she was the wife to the then legendary and able ruler Seti the Second. She was confronted with challenges of all sorts. The most prominent of those were the battles and conflicts within, which gave Egypt an outlook of a country marred by civil war at that time (Klein, p. 309). Sobekenfru: Her span of authority and control was for a shorter span of time, however she ruled with authority. She ruled towards the later end of 18th B.C era. She enjoyed rich matrilineal heritage to her ancestral pedigree (David, p. 65). The likes of Amenemhet the Third and Amenemhet the Fourth were associated with her. Her legacy goes into the Egyptian history as that of a Pharaoh and she had her figure drawn out on number of figures. Some of which are still present and part of the rich history of the Egyptian historic precedence. Apart from these few, other names that are mentioned in the list of influential women who played a role towards women’s emancipation include the likes of Neithikret. She had her own aura and was famous for her beauty and command and control over the kingdom. She was amongst the first few female rulers that the Egyptian history would show. This was the mention of few of the women who ruled in the earlier days towards the B.C century. Towards the A.D century and modern times, a long list of female names come forth with regard to their character, the ability and bravery with which they took the reign and dominated the political scenario to their wishes and the desires of the people of Egypt. Doria Shaifk: Doria Shaik was another leader from those days towards end of Second World War. She advocated for the more active and liberal participation of the women in the social and political field. The contribution of Doria Shaifk is pivotal on account of the timings when she guided and marched over towards the parliament. It came about at a time when the country was on the verge of rebellion against the status quo. In no time, towards 1952, the country saw a revolt against the status quo and the role Doria Shaifk played cannot be ruled out and the modern day free and politically active women of Egypt largely owe it to Doria Shaifk and the other like minded women who practically took to the streets and demonstrated their abilities, the bravery and raised their voices against all kinds of oppressions, exploitation and atrocities on the political front. Other major influence that can be seen in the society of Egypt is the tolerance towards the women. This can be attributed to the Napoleon conquests that were made towards the end of the 18th century. It is believed that Napoleon brought about his ways and France’s cultural traces which in turn allowed for accommodation and acceptance of the women in the social and political spectrum and as a result more active participation. The feminism movements that have been seen time and again in Egypt can be indirectly attributed to the Western influence over the Egyptian society. The influence of the Ottoman Empire is another factor that can be termed as a contributing factor towards the tolerant views towards women coming up in the social and political field and contributing actively. Since Ottoman Empire had great influence and over period of time, it had the governors designated who would administer over the policies of the Porte, which also included a relatively liberal view and idea set towards women in politics. Feminist movements: Egypt’s modern day history has seen number of feminist movements. The first came about between 1900 and 1923. The second one was followed after from 1923 to 1939. The main purpose of these feminist movements was the revival of the women’s role and rights as they had enjoyed in the previous decades and centuries. One of the important figure amongst many others that came in front was Ceza Nabarawi. She was politically as well as socially active on account of the desire to represent women in a more open way by opposing the usage of veil. As a result of this, she had to go through number of troubles but she did not give up and continued her struggle. Egyptian Feminist Union: This was one of the first steps towards women empowerment that was seen towards the early part of the 20th century. This movement lasted for a considerable time between early 1920s till 1939. The aim was to raise voice for women to become more active and allow for their true representation in the political and social field. The head of this entity was Hoda Shaarwi who led the union effectively and did justice to its existence and cause. This union worked in collaboration with the other international and globally recognized entities. Hoda Shaarwi enjoyed her background as one of being the daughter to the pasha and with a well to do background. She therefore had the knowhow and information about the political activities. Hence the previous background helped her participating well and according to the needs of the environment and political landscape of Egypt. The mothers of Sultans: The history of Egypt from ancient times reveals that it was not just the women in the seat of authority as the queens that enjoyed authority; rather there were women in other faces and shapes that played a role. The mothers of the Sultans played a remarkable role on number of occasions. They had considerable influence over the sultans decision making and other aspects of their ruling days. The reference can be drawn from the study and observation of the One Thousand and One Nights. The mother of of Nurl Al- Din was famous in her times. She provided protection to her son. Her son had come in conflict with her husband and as a result she took the bold decision and provided him with shelter. Al Khatun is another woman who goes into history to have played a role regarding the king makers. Khawand Zainab, who was the daughter to the famous personality in those days in the name of Khasabak, she provided him with protection. Other notable leads who contributed in different forms from time to time included the likes of Khawand Asalbay, Zahra and Khawand Toghay were few of the names who did not reach to the seat of power and or become queens but were affiliated with the main institution of decision making and political high ups during those days. One of these with which Egyptian Feminist Union was associated included International Women Suffrage Alliance. The union not just fought for one area of empowerment but also demanded educational rights. A development and achievement came about towards 1925 when government gave in to their demand and women and young girls were facilitated towards empowerment and education seeking in a more effective manner. To more actively spread her word and make her actions effectively heard and spread out to the masses, Hoda Shaarwi also initiated the spread and publishing of a magazine. The magazine was named “L Egyptienne”. The purpose of this magazine was to spread the ideas of the political freedom and the awareness that was needed towards the actual women’s emancipation of women during those days in Egypt. Shajar Al Durr: Shajar Al Durr’s rule and reign marked the days when Egypt was going through real turbulent times. Although she did not lead on for years, but in her short span and stunt as the ruler and guider of the people, she set precedence for a very effective style of leadership that would go on into history as an ideal one for future generations. Other notable individuals who contributed in different manner and through different times include Khawand Zainab. She enjoyed high respect from the male members of the ruling society and she ruled with elegance, character and dignity. She was wife to the then ruler AL Ashraf Inal. She came to power in adverse situations and scenario but lead through excellent skills of leadership and character. Present day outlook: Egypt underwent a revolution and transformation in form of the Arab Spring .The Tehrir square became the emblem of revolution and revolt against the status quo. The women equally participated in the uprising and revolt against the two and a half decades long dictator Husseini Mubarak. The recent amendments in the constitution are further aimed at strengthening and providing the women with a chance to represent themselves in the elector process and change the life styles of their sisters who have been victim of the atrocities and isolation during the days of the dictator who had marginalized the parliament to men dominated parliament. At present, Egypt stands with a 12 percent representation of the women in the entire parliament (COLEMAN). 1956 constitution: The 1956 constitution was a breakthrough with regard to the women’s emancipation. Previously the history had seen relatively discouraging attitude towards the women’s representation. As a result of the amendment, the women enjoyed greater liberty with regard to the voting rights. The 1956 constitution was the continuation of the developments towards the rights of women. In modern history, the first time women enjoyed the right to voting came about in 1954. Prior to that, the women were barred from voting. Further developments and progress kept coming along and it was towards the 70s decade when women enjoyed more direct protection and representation. It came about through the article 62 of the constitution which aimed at promoting and providing the women with all the basic facilities that would encourage them into participating actively (Masry). The 2005 elections did not show any positive updates with regard to the women’s representation in the parliament. Only four female members made it to the parliament during those elections. Towards 1960s the women in Egypt made it to the ministries and served as the cabinet ministers as well. The first major breakthrough that was achieved towards those days were the appointment of the female minister for social affairs. It came about in 1962 and the lady who held the owners in this category was Miss Hikmat Abu Zeid. In more recent times, women have been raised to the post of Manpower, ministers of Immigration and Minister for International Cooperation. The female members who were assigned the post were Aisha Abdel Hady, Fayza Abul Naga and Mosheera Mahmoud Khattab. Nadia Zakhary: Nadia Zakhary holds the honors being the current minister for scientific Research. She has been holding this post for nearly two years now. This speaks volumes of the women empowerment and emancipation that has been paced up in recent times. Apart from her political progress and achievements, she holds a doctorate degree in Bio Chemistry and based on her credentials and affiliation with the field of education and technology she has been appointed the minister for scientific research. In Egypt the women are not just limited to the Muslim population who have been participating, the Christian women are also actively participating in the political field. Laila Takla: Laila Takla represents the Christian community. She is an active political activist and she represents the Coptic community of Egypt. She holds the privilege of being the very first president for the Foreign Relations Committee. She is associated with the Egyptian People’s Assembly. Apart from the organizations that are working in Egpyt, there have been number of entities that have been actively advocating the political representation of Egyptian women in different parts of the world regardless of the women’s affiliation with any country or region. Various entities which are not just limited to the political freedom and rights accomplishment are actively present and working in different corners of the world. One of these is Women’s social and Political Union. It was aimed at providing the platform to the women in United Kingdom. Egyptian women derive their inspiration from these international organizations and work towards the protection and awareness creation of the women in different sectors. A move put forward towards 2010 aimed at more empowerment and representation of the women in the parliament. The number of seats that were declared for were 64. If that is implemented in the coming years, that would mean the representation of the women would increase by as much as fifteen hundred percent. This is a highly staggeringly value and is highly encouraged. The western world and other movements and entities of women empowerment have welcomed this move (Hill). This would mean an overall representation of the women by overall 12 percent in the entire parliament. To highlight the importance of this and acknowledge the pledges made, a conference was held in Dokki where the representative and other politically active women participated and stressed upon the need for women empowerment in different phases. The other positives that can be deduced from the sixty four seats that have been made available is the fact that over three hundred and eighty female candidates have come to the front and field to contest and try their luck. This is highly encouraging with regard to the women’s participation and with such trends ,the rates of women contesting is bound to increase in upcoming days. Medhia Khattab: Medhia Khattab is another significant figure in the context of women in the political scenario of Egypt. She enjoys repute and history of being associated to the First lady during the times of the former president Husseini Mubarak. Apart from this, she derives her past and precedence from her experience in the health care sector. Her possible rise to power may further encourage the women in to voting for the women and taking them up to the highest level of representation. Hala Shukarllah: Hala Shukarallah is unique in her presence in the political spectrum with regard to her background. She is one of the very first and few who is representing and heading a major political party and that too, when she is a Christian lady by religious background. Shukarllah is a lady in her late 50s and has an established repute in the social sphere and she has been in this field long enough to derive her experience and legacy which would make her an apt choice for representing the Egyptian women on a bigger platform.. She represents the AL Dastur political party and the party hopes to play a vital role towards the future trends where the women can come up and participate more actively regardless of their religious affiliations and background. The party AL Dastur derives its legacy from the likes of the famous EL Baradai who is a rare Nobel Laureate in the history of Egypt’s politics. Since he has been forced to stay in exile, his absence has given Hala Shukarllah a chance to consolidate her place and in return represent the women in a more active and passionate manner. There are other socially and politically active individual women that have come forth over period of time. These women, regardless of the traits of a men dominated society have put themselves at risk, yet raised their voices for the people’s rights and political sovereignty. One notable individual that would come to mind in this regard is that of Samira Ibrahim. She had to go through the turbulent times on account of her outward response and reaction to the reactionary politics in recent times. However, such moves have not been able to deter her determination and she had advocated the rights and social protection of the people in a louder manner since then. Hala Shukarllah derives her legacy from the sacrifices she has made time and again. Due to the presence of the dictators and the subsequent absence of the political atmosphere, Sukhallah had to taste the air of prison and imprisonment in the 1970s and 1980s decade. It was on account of her outspoken and aggressive stance towards the dictator and her desire and demand for a more democratic environment in Egypt which was needed for a progressive Egyptian society. The 2012 referendum that was undertaken in the post Arab spring scenario and was a step forward after the deposing of the military dictator saw a total of 27 percent women representing themselves and making up for the overall turn out. The absence of true democracy in Egypt for multiple decades led to the stagnation with regard to the women empowerment. This was first off by the two dictators with Husseini Mubarak being the last of them. As a result of the absence of true democracy and the political parities being sidelined and little political activities allowed, the women could not flourish. However, in the post Arab spring scenario and towards the 2011- 2012 elections, the women have seen a pleasant change with regard to the opportunities and the possible chances of representing themselves in the social and political field which would possible help overcoming the problems faced. It is not just the active participation with regard to representing themselves; rather the expression in terms of keeping themselves up to date with the happenings in the political field and participating is another area of associated interest. The recently conducted Referendum that was held early in 2014 for determination of the future outlook of politics in Egypt saw a relatively higher and an encouraging turn out of women who expressed their views with regard to the future determination. This will send a positive message in future with the Egyptian politics taking a turn towards improvement and is going through transitional phase. Despite the threats and challenges faced from the parities that have been opposing the referendum, the coming out of women to the polling stations on the given day is a very positive sign in this regard (Ghany). Doctor Manal Abul Hassan: She is another prominent figure in the modern Egyptian political landscape. She recently came under the limelight for her remarks and views about the ongoing political activities, which according to her are supported by the remains of the dictators and their family members. Other notable ones in the same tier include the likes of Mervat Tellavi and Tahani AL- Jabali. These two have recently been advocating the participation of women in politics in a more active manner. New constitution and hope for women: The new constitution that has been presented under the guidance and administration of the military leader in the form of Al Sisi is termed as a positive sign towards the empowerment of women in the politics of Egypt. It is based on the substances and the fact that the previous government that was led by Muslim Brotherhood were relatively conservative in their approach. There were number of events and traces where their outward maneuver did not encourage or extend their support to women in different fields namely politics. The present government which is relatively flexible in its outlook may prove to be more friendly towards women who aim at participating in the politics. The case of full citizenship presented by the military led government is a positive sign and may pave the way for further extended participation of women in Egypt political dynamics. Conclusion: According to the latest findings regarding the total population of Egypt, the women comprise for over 49 percent of the entire population. From the study of the past history of Egypt the two nations that may stand as the front runners with regard to the female rulers would include Egypt amongst the top two. With Roman Empire the second one that highly encouraged the women into participating in the political field in a more active manner during the era of golden Roman Empire. The curtailing of women to houses and excluding them from the political scenario would mean half crippling and half isolation of the societal functional outlook. Therefore the need is for more effective outward representation of women in the political landscape. Despite the number of developments and overall progress made towards women emancipation, there are number of hurdles that stand in the way. These hurdles come in the form of conventional mindset that had prevented the women from coming out of the houses and representing their like gender folks. Further responsibility falls upon the present government and the military led leadership to ensure that the women are encouraged into the political field. The richness of the present day Egypt’s history might well had been half complete without the mention and the presence of the lead women that came up from time to time. They made the history and culture of Egypt ever so rich and ever so protective and responsive towards the women working in the different fields and sectors. The present day parties need to get flexible with regard to the social and political standing of the women and they for this purpose must provide the women with greater opportunities of empowering themselves and protecting the rights of the people in a more effective manner. The true representation of the women would allow for a more prosperous and more representative Egypt towards the challenges of the modern world. References: COLEMAN, ISOBEL. INSIGHT: Quotas and Women in Egyptian Politics. 7 October 2013. 29 March 2014 . David, Ann Rosalie. Handbook to life in ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2007. Ghany, Abd El. Women reassert political role in Egypt. 14 January 2014. 29 March 2014 . Griffin, Miriam. A Companion to Julius Caesar. John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Hill, Evan. Women make leap in Egypt parliament. 29 Nov 2010. 29 March 2014 . Jacob, Merle and Hope Apple. To be Continued: An Annotated Guide to Sequels. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000. Klein, Cecelia F. Gender in Pre-Hispanic America: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 12 and 13 October 1996. Dumbarton Oaks, 2001. Masry, Sarah El. Egypt’s Constitutional Experience. 30 October 2012. 29 March 2014 . Monderson, Frederick. Hatshepsuts Temple at Deir El Bahari. AuthorHouse, 2007. Read More