Objectives of the British and Russian Empires in the Great Game in Central Asia and Afghanistan - Research Paper Example

?What main objectives did the British and Russian Empires pursue in the of the ‘Great Game’ in Central Asia and Afghanistan? Introduction The Great Game in Central Asia and Afghanistan referred to the rivalry of the British and Russian Empire, empires seeking dominance over the other in Central Asia. This rivalry spanned years and periods in the lives of the people affected by the rivalry. It also went through different phases in for the countries concerned. This paper shall now discuss the objectives which the British and Russian Empires had in the course of the Great Game in Central Asia and Afghanistan. It shall provide the historical beginnings of the rivalry, including its highlights and significant events. It shall also discuss the significant objectives which the empires had in the Great Game. It shall also highlight the rivalry of the empires in Afghanistan and in Central Asia, as well as the impact and the overall goals achieved in these nations by these empires. Body Britain and Russia were involved in a major rivalry in Central Asia at the start of the nineteenth century; this went on to the early 1900s (Szczepanski, 2011). Much of Britain’s reasons for wanting control and influence over Central Asia have been tied in with its goal to establish a British India. Russia, on the other hand, was seeking to increase its territory as a means of establishing the largest empire in the world, and if gaining India from Britain would ensure this goal then it was willing to secure any means to conquer India (Szczepanski, 2011). As Britain secured its power over India, Myanmar, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, Russia also secured its power over Central Asian khanates and tribes on the southern regions (Szczepanski, 2011). The frontlines for the empires therefore run through Afghanistan, Tibet, and Persia (Szczepanski, 2011). When Britain sought to overrun Afghanistan, its efforts ended in defeat. Afghanistan, therefore, served as the ice breaker between these two empires. In Tibet, Britain was able to control the region for about two years following the Younghusband exploration; however, such control was later deposed by Qin China (Szczepanski, 2011). This game ended with the Anglo-Russian Convention in 1907 which effectively split Persia into the Russian controlled north, and the British-controlled south. This convention also set forth the border zone between these two empires, and later declared Afghanistan part of the British protectorate. Despite the establishment of this convention, the relationship between these two empires remained strained and tension-filled. This tension was somehow minimized when these territories allied with each other during the First World War. Specific details of this “Great Game” shall be discussed forthwith. In the latter part of the 19th century, the Russian and British Empire showed stirrings of a conflicting and tense meet-up. As Russia was expanding its power and territories to its east and southern borders, Britain’s power over its empire and territories was being threatened (Johnson, 2006). When British interests in India were also threatened, Britain became fully determined to secure its interests. This period marked a major rivalry between these two empires, and this ‘Great Game’ became clearly apparent in Europe and well into the Far Eastern region of Asia (Johnson, 2006). Prompted by Russia’s seeming interest in India, Britain increased its military activities in Afghanistan and Tibet, and many of these military activities were often disastrous for the countries involved (Johnson, 2006). From the early 18th to mid-19th centuries, Russia exercised its power over India which was then under British control. The Russians were not able to gain as much progress in terms of empirical conquests in the 1700s and 1800s, but in the 19th century, they were seriously posing a threat on India. The distance between the British and Russian empires was also starting to close in, and both empires were now aiming to conquer as much land as the land that lay between them, which included Iran (Persia), Afghanistan, and Tibet (Johnson, 2006). The Great Game further gained ground as these two empires sought control of these areas. Middle Eastern Asia provided a fodder for conflict for these two empires, Britain wanted to gain a lead over Russia in Turkey and Persia because it was commercially and militarily advantageous for them (Meyer and Brysac, 2006). They also wanted to control the Sultan of Turkey since the latter controlled the area where the Suez Canal ran, and where access to India could be gained. The Russians were also keen to control the Sultan of Turkey because he controlled the Straits of Constantinople (Meyer and Brysac, 2006). There seemed to be no possibility of compromise between these two empires in their Great Game. In the 1800s disruptions in their power weakened these two empires with the Crimean War almost ruining Russia as a great power and the Indian mutiny also weakening Britain (Meyer and Brysac, 2006). In order to compensate for their weakness, these two empires used different techniques to gain leverage over the other. They competed for political favors with the Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of Iran, and the Amir of Afghanistan; they traded to secure political goals; they sent military explorations; and they gathered allies in Europe (Meyer and Brysac, 2006). Britain was supported by Austria, Hungary, France, and Germany in order to thwart Russian entry in the Straits and the Mediterranean. In effect, much of the success of either empire depended on the rest of Europe and how these countries placed themselves in this Great Game (Meyer and Brysac, 2006). India was a crucial determinant in the rivalry between two countries (Naik, 1970). Britain placed much value on India, even much more than its other conquests mostly because it its profitable economic market in this country. Britain also valued its investments in India. India also provided troops for Britain, as well as a command over the rest of South Asia. More importantly, India also represented Britain’s power and invincibility (Naik, 1970. Hence, Britain was keen on maintaining its control over India. In order to continue its hold over India, Britain was aware that it had to play a balancing act, with its negative impact light, and its positive effects just enough to make British reign acceptable to the people (Paksoy, 1991). Britain feared that Russia would set up base in Persia and Afghanistan and use such bases to trigger rebellions among the tribesmen of the North West areas. Britain negotiated with Russia to secure its interests in Afghanistan, and Russia expresses that it had no interest over Afghanistan (Paksoy, 1991). The Amir of Afghanistan was however noncommittal to the British efforts to seek closer relations. Many officials in Afghanistan were also against the British Empire that they were only willing to entertain unconditional British aid. Britain faced even more pressure from Russia when Russia invaded Turkey and was on the verge of seizing control from the Sultan (Paksoy, 1991). However, Britain was able to gain support from Austria-Hungary and pushed Russia into the Balkans. Britain was able to accomplish a victory over Russia in the Great Game after the above incident. However, when Britain was preoccupied by conflicts in the Near East, Russia redoubled its efforts in Central Asia (Hopkirk, 1992). Its mind was now set on urging Britain to giving in some of its control in the Near East. This point in the Great Game was filled with tension (Hopkirk, 1992). At the opening of the Congress of Berlin, a Russian group was sent to Kabul, and emissaries were sent to Turkestan, and orders went out to invade India. A holy war against Britain was declared and this enraged the Viceroy of India who suggested that a British mission be sent to Kabul. This suggestion was supported by London (Hopkirk, 1992). Britain feared Russian invasion via the Khyber or the Bolan Pass and when Henry Rawlinson, a subaltern discovered mounted Russian officers apparently bringing gifts to the Shah. In fact they were bearing gifts to the Emir of Afghanistan. Nevertheless, Britain’s apprehension grew even further (Morgan, 1973). When Britain discovered Russia’s subterfuge, the government decided to cause a balance of power with the different nations influenced by Great Britain. Punjab and Sind were viewed as allies, and it was hoped that uniting Afghanistan under Britain would help establish protection for the northern borders of British India (Yapp, 2001). Afghanistan is a harsh land with its mountains, warriors, unbending Islamic beliefs, as well as tribal rivalries. The dominant leader of Afghanistan was Dost Mohammed and even as he had relations with the Russians, the British government had a closer relationship to his court (Yapp, 2001). London made sure that its hold on India would be secured. The Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston decided to take a firm action against Russia by controlling Afghanistan. This would in effect, stop Iran and Russia from acting on Afghanistan (Yapp, 2001). In 1838, demands for Dost Mohammed to stop its friendly relations with the Russians were made by Auckland. However, Auckland was asked to leave the court and the Emir once again became British controlled. Auckland later decided to conquer Afghanistan, to stop Dost Mohammed and to set up Shah Shujah as its puppet ruler (Mahdi, 2007). In 1839, British and Indian troops entered Afghanistan via the Bolan Pass and Dost Mohammed was later overthrown (Mahdi, 2007). Shad Shujah took control of the country with his seat of power at Kabul; and Britain controlled the country. This control was however, very much unstable. The terrain was difficult and challenging. British control was difficult to impose because Kabul was in the north, and tribes were in conflict with each other (Mahdi, 2007). Shah was also unpopular, the military troops were lacking, and the British were also unpopular in the region. A national insurrection of the tribal chiefs in Afghanistan against Britain and Shah Shujah unfolded in 1841 (Vogelsang, 2002). The British were granted temporary passage into India, but were attacked by two chiefs who did not agree to grant them passage. Other British officers were taken as prisoners or hostages, and the rest were murdered. Dr. Brydon was the lone survivor and was able to report back to India about the incident (Roberts, 2005). The British government retaliated and soon reoccupied Kabul in 1842 where they were able to rescue the hostages; and where they destroyed buildings and carried out many killings. The war failed and soon after Dos Mohammed regained power (British Battles, 2010). Britain however expressed its military power and this seemed to serve as sufficient warning on the Emir on the power of the British Empire. There were various effects of the war failure in Afghanistan. One such failure is the expansion of Britain into India; the conquest of Sind and Punjab; and improved British and Russian relations as far as central Asia was concerned (British Foreign Policy, 2002). Each country was now more disposed to leave the other country alone. However, this seeming peace did not last with another area of concern – the Ottoman Empire. The cause was not entirely established. Before the conflicts about the Ottoman Empire unfolded, there were already existing treaties in these countries with France being the protector of Catholics in the Ottoman Empire and Russia that of the Orthodox Christians (Burk, 2007). The Catholics and the Orthodox Christians have had many disagreements regarding the Church and Nativity and both groups have made their own demands on the Sultan throughout the years. The Sultan mostly favored France. Tsar Nicholas ordered a diplomat to the Sultan in order to establish a new contract where Russia may interrupt if she deemed that the Sultan was not protecting the Orthodox Christians (Burk, 2007). Britain also sent a viscount to Constantinople as its Ambassador. When the Ambassador arrived he discovered the Tsar’s demands and he convinced the Sultan to reject the Tsar’s proposal. When the Tsar discovered the Sultan’s rejection, he invaded Moldavia and Wallachia which were part of the Ottoman Empire; these were principalities (Nazemroaya, 2007). Upon occupying these principalities, Russia became closer to Constantinople and the Straits. The other Great Powers were against this move and UK sent its troops into Dardanelles; so did France. Negotiations for compromise among the involved nations did not pan out. The Sultan soon declared war against Russia, and his troops were sent to the Russian troops near the Danube and the Caucasus region (Burk, 2007). Russian forces retaliated and were able to cripple the Turkish troops trying to conquer Georgia. A Turkish flotilla was also defeated by Russian fleets. The Turks went through Constantinople following the coast of Asia Minor and they were attacked in the port at Snop (Burk, 2007). As a result, Russians were able to land and support its forces at the Black Sea. When the Turkish fleet was destroyed, Britain and France were alarmed and declared war against Russia. The Great Game started to be “played” during Dost Mohammad’s reign in Afghanistan. Although tension was already seen before his rule, the tension between the British and Russian Empires reached its height under Dost Mohammad’s rule (Blood, 2001). British and Russian interests in terms of expanding their empires finally reached an impasse in Afghanistan and this standoff was reached during Dost Mohammad’s reign. Britain was more inclined towards establishing its puppet government in Kabul and its attempts towards a greater political involvement in Afghanistan as well as its surrounding regions increased the conflict among the local tribal leaders in the country (Blood, 2001). Britain did not consider Afghanistan, Iran, or France to be threats to its interests in India, instead, it considered Russia to be its greatest competitor in its status as a major player in Central Asia (Hopkirk, 1992). The feelings were more than mutual and reciprocated as Russia feared British occupation in the Central Asian region. This was true to a certain degree with Britain expanding its territories in the northern regions, already taking over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Britain on the other hand was suspicious of Russia setting its sights on Caucasus, the Kirghiz, and the Turkmen lands, as well as the Khanates of Khiva and Bukhara (Blood, 2001). Their advance into these areas, were considered as a threat to its interests in India which Britain wanted to secure by all means. The concerns of both empires were justified to a certain extent. Firstly, Russia had a significant influence in the Iranian courts. This spurred the Russians to provide support to Iran as it sought to invade Heart, which was considered the gateway to Afghanistan and northern India (Blood, 2001). Iran later invaded Heart aided by Russian troops and Russian officers. Britain also urged Dost Mohammad to cut all ties with the Iranians and the Russians and to depose Vitkevich from Kabul, as well as to give up its claims to Peshawar. In exchange, Britain also agreed to ask Singh to make his peace with the Afghans. As Auckland refused to make such agreements, Dost Mohammad decided to turn his back on Britain and instead, negotiate with Vitkevich (Blood, 2001). Singh, Auckland, and Shuja agreed that Shuja would have regain control of Kabul and Qandahar with the assistance of Britain and Sikhs. He was also to agree to Sikh rule over some of the original Afghan territories; moreover, Heart would stay independent. In actual practice, Dost Mohammad was replaced with a British ruler who would have limited powers (Blood, 2001). It also became obvious to Britain that the Sikhs advancement towards Kabul via the Khyber Pass and Shuja and Britain’s advance through Qandahar would not materialize. In the aftermath of the advancements of Russia and Britain over Central Asia, the region would be filled with much political and military tension. The term “Great Game” was popularized as a description for the British and Russian tension in Central Asia by Kipling, in his novel “Kim” which was published in 1901 (Warfare and Wargaming, 2010). Arthur Connolly was also credited for using this term as he travelled to Central Asia in 1835. Regardless of who coined the term, this Great Game between two Empires was acknowledged by both countries as a significant part of their histories, spanning early nineteenth century, somewhat ending in 1907 in the Anglo-Russian Convention. The Convention is also considered the Convention of Mutual Cordiality or the Anglo-Russian Agreement (Warfare and Wargaming, 2010). This convention established a strong unity among the Triple Entente powers – France, Russia, and Great Britain. This alliance would later come head to head with the Triple Alliance of Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy. It also secured the borders among these countries with Russia and Britain consenting to not divide and invade Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet; but agreeing to consider these countries for their economic and political influence. This Great Game was played as a ‘game’ of mutual distrust on the part of Russia and Britain. The game basically played out because both countries feared that the other would encroach on its territories (Warfare and Wargaming, 2010). This tension led to thoughts of a war breaking out between these two empires. However, no significant skirmishes between these two countries ever broke out in Central Asia; however, this did not stop them from engaging in minor to full blown wars with the people of Central Asia. Russia was not initially a major player in Central Asia in the eighteenth century; however, during the early nineteenth century it started setting its sight on its southern borders. In order to initiate its initial plans of territorial expansion, it gained the allegiance of some of the Kazakhs (Warfare and Wargaming, 2010). Many Kazakhs however were against the Russian Empire and much of the latter’s efforts were geared towards controlling Kazakh resistance and securing the southern borders. Russia was able to control the Kazakh resistance in 1847 and later, due to its defeat in the Crimean War, it turned its military focus towards the east and south expansion in Central Asia (Rubin and Rashid, 2008). In the Treaty of Paris, Russia was forced to give up its interests in Southwest Asia and once more reinvigorated its interests in Central Eurasia. Its invasion of Central Eurasia was strategized as both offensive and defensive moves and they invaded the areas left to them in the hope of securing a strong position in the region before Britain would further encroach in these claimed territories (Warfare and Wargaming, 2010). With the Russian Empire slowly gaining ground and territories in Central Asia, Britain became alarmed. Russia’s victory over the Turkmen proved to be a crucial victory and its final territorial acquisition in Central Eurasia at the oasis of Merv further caused much concern for Britain because of Merv’s proximity to Afghanistan (Morgan, 1973). Britain’s concerns were mostly founded on its fears that its interests in India would be threatened and since India was not officially a British colony it still enjoyed a rich political and economic relationship with the country, including Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet. All in all, these interests in the end spawned various skirmishes and conflicts between two empires which were primarily bent on gaining an advantage over the other (Warfare and Wargaming, 2010). Such conflicts would find some resolution through the Anglo-Russian Convention in 1907, but the damage has already been done for India, Afghanistan and for the rest of Central Asia who were merely pawns for these two empires in their quest towards political and military dominance. Works Cited Blood, P. (2010). Afghanistan: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. British Foreign Policy (2002). Disraeli's letter to the Queen in: Mahajan, Sneh. British Foreign Policy, 1874-1914. Routledge. British Battles. (2010). The Battle of Kabul and the retreat to Gandamak. Retrieved 14 September 2011 from http://www.britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/kabul-gandamak.htm Burk, K. (2007). The Great Game: Imperial Rivalry between Britain and Russia in the 19th Century. 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