Arguments about the critical period hypothesis - Annotated Bibliography Example

Annotated Bibliography Annotated Bibliography Bialystok, E. (1997). The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 13, 116-137. This research focuses on the critical period that facilitates learning of a second language. This research rejects the idea that a critical period is necessary in which second language can be learned. This research states that the critical period or the age of the learner does not influence and individuals ability to learn a second language. This research has rather identified other factors that impact the ability of learning a second language. Findings of this research will be used to refute the idea that critical period is required for learning second language. Birdsong, D. (1992). Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. Language, 68, 706- 755. This research focused on the generalization that once an individual crosses the age of puberty, his/her ability to gain native proficiency in learning a particular language is lost. The researchers were able to identify that this generalization is not completely true and that there are other factors involved. This research will be used to provide support for the opponent side of the argument that puberty and the age before puberty is the critical period to gain native like proficiency in learning a second language. Birdsong, D. (2005). Nativelikeness and non-nativelikeness in L2A research. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43, 319-328. In this research article the author provides a commentary and definition of an individual’s ability to speak a language in the same way a native user of that language speaks that language. In this article the author even states that the critical period hypothesis restricts the way researchers look at non-natives ability to learn a second language. This article will be used to define the concepts of nativelikeness as well as non-nativelikeness in relation to the usage of these concepts in the critical period argument. Birdsong, D., & Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational constraints in secondlanguage acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 235-249. This research was conducted on Spanish subjects in order to identify the constraints they experience while gaining nativelike proficiency in learning a second language. The researchers were able to identify that there is a negative correlation between an individual’s ability to learn a second language with nativelike proficiency and age even once the critical period has elapsed. This study will be used to argue against the critical period hypothesis and it will be used to support the point that non-natives fail to develop nativelike proficiency in using a language before as well as after the critical period. Bley-Vroman, R. (1988). The fundamental character of foreign language learning. In W. Rutherford &M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Grammar and second language teaching: A book of readings (pp.19-30). In this article the author talks about ten different characteristics of adults who try to learn a second language. One of these characteristics is age and its correlation with the proficiency with which they learn a second language. In this section the author states that it is generally presumed that the proficiency with which an individual can learn a second language is higher during early ages of life. This article will be used in the research to provide an introduction to the argument of critical point hypothesis. Colombo, J. (1982). The critical period concept: Research, methodology, and theoretical concerns. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 260-275. This article is a discussion of the concept of critical period which is marked by the age of an individual starting from his/her birth till he/she reaches adulthood. The article even discusses various researches regarding the concept of critical period along with issues in theorizing the concept and the methodologies used to perform research regarding the topic. This article will be used in the argument to define the concept of critical period and to criticize its use in determining the proficiency that individuals attain while learning a second language. Curtiss, S. (1977). Genie: A psycholinguistic study of a modern day “wildchild”. New York: Academic Press. This research focuses on a child who lived in captivation and when she was discovered she lack the ability that the children of her age enjoyed. The research even focuses on the critical period hypothesis and the researchers were able to support the critical period hypothesis with the case of Genie. This study will be used to provide example in support of for the case of existence of a critical period which is necessary for the development of children. Flege, J. E., Frieda, A. M., & Nozawa, T. (1997). Amount of native-language (L1) use affects the pronunciation of an L2. Journal of Phonetics, 25, 169-186. The purpose of this study was to identify the impact of use of native language on an individual’s ability to learn a second language. The researchers were able to identify that second language learners are unable to develop nativelike proficiency even after being exposed to a second language for more than 34 years. The study even identified that if an individual is exposed to higher degree of native language, he/she fails in developing the accent of a foreign language. This study will be used to counter the claim that if children are exposed to a second language during early ages of their neurological development then they are able to use the second language with higher proficiency. Flege, J. E., Munro, M., & MacKay, I. (1995). Factors affecting degree of perceived foreign accent in a second language. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 99, 1161-1173. This study was conducted to identify the trueness of the critical period hypothesis in the context of proficiently pronouncing words of a second language. The researchers identified that the pronunciation of those second language users was similar to the natives who had started learning the language during the critical period or before the age of 15 but they were not as proficient as natives. This study will be used to provide evidence for the claim that learning a second language during critical period does increases the proficiency of pronouncing words of a second language. Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60-99. The purpose of this study was to identify whether the critical period hypothesis that was found to be true for first language development was even true for second language learning. The researchers identified that those individuals who migrated to the US during their early ages of life were more proficient in English Language as compared to those who migrated during late ages. This research will even be used to provide support for the claim that early exposure to a second language can lead to higher ability to use that language. Krashen, S. D. (1975). The critical period for language and its possible bases. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 263, 211-224. This research article focuses on the subject of critical period for the development and acquisition of language in an individual’s life. The article reviews several researches that have been conducted to affirm or reject the critical period hypothesis. The article will be used in defining the critical period. One of the findings of the author was the critical period starts when a child is only 2 years old and end during puberty. Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley. This resource focuses on the topic of how an individual develops the ability to communicate and use their native or first language. In this resource the author argues that any trait, behaviour or skill can only be developed if its development starts during the early stages of life. He believed that this was even true in the case of development of an individual’s language. This resource will be used to provide a historical account of the development of the critical period. Long, M. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251-285. This research is a review of various researches that have been conducted on the variables of age and acquisition and development of language. The researcher was able to identify that the ultimate proficiency with which an individual can utilize a particular language is dependent on the age the individual starts learning a language. The researcher even claims that the critical period does not necessarily ends during puberty, it might end earlier. This research will be used to support the critical period hypothesis and to define the time period that is categorized as critical period. Long, M. (2005). Problems with supposed counter-evidence to the Critical Period Hypothesis. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43, 287-317. In this research the author focuses on criticism or issues with the arguments that are presented against the critical period hypothesis. In this research the author identifies nine different deficits in the design of research that has been conducted to counter the critical period claims. This research will be used to refute the arguments that have been made against the critical period hypothesis. This research will be used to target the methodology of the arguments and researches used to argue against the critical period. Moyer, A. (1999). Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology: The critical factors of age, motivation, and instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 81-108. This research was conducted to counter the claim that critical period alone is essential for the learning of second language. The researchers identified that critical period alone does not play a significant role in acquisition of second language and other factors are involved. These factors include suprasegmental training and other factors. This research will be used as evidence to support the argument against the critical period hypothesis and to support the claim that there are other factors involved in the development of second language. Oyama, S. (1978). The sensitive period and comprehension of speech. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 16, 1-17. The purpose of this study was to identify the difficulties due to which adults fail to proficiently communicate in English Language and the factors that cause these difficulties. The researchers were able to identify that those who migrated to America before reaching the age of adolescence were able to speak English quite closely to the way natives communicate in English. This study will be used to provide support to the argument in favour of the critical period which according to this research is before adolescence. Patkowski, M. (1980). The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning, 30, 449-472. This research was conducted in order to identify whether individuals who are exposed to a second language before the age of 15 are able to attain higher degree of syntactic proficiency in learning the second language. The researchers identified that those who were exposed to a second language before the age of 15 enjoyed higher syntactic proficiency. The research will be used to provide support for the claim that critical period does help an individual in enhancing the proficiency over a second language. Scovel, T. (1988). A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. This book focuses on the topic of critical period and the connection between psychology and development and acquisition of both first and second language. The author of the book provides enough evidence to support the critical period for the learning and development of first language. This resource will used to provide background information regarding the critical period and will be used for the definition of various concepts linked with it. Thompson, I. (1991). Foreign accents revisited: The English pronunciation of Russian immigrants. Language Learning, 41, 177-204. This study was conducted to identify factors that impact the development of the ability to pronounce words of a second language. The researchers identified that those individuals who migrated to US during the ages of 4 and 10 pronounced English words quite closely to the way they are pronounced by natives. The authors identified that the research of critical period is dependent on the listeners. The author states that the lenient listeners are more likely to rate second language speakers higher than the rigid ones. The research will be used to refute the arguments that are provided against the critical period hypothesis. White, L., & Genesee, F. (1996). How native is near-native? The issue of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 12, 233-265. This research was conducted to refute the argument that exposure to second language during the critical period determines the proficiency with which a second language is used. The researchers argue that these researches and their arguments are flawed. This is because these researchers take into consideration the proficiency of those non-natives who have not obtained native like proficiency. This research will be used to refute the arguments in favour of the critical period and the refutation will be performed on the basis of methodology of research that supports critical period hypothesis. References Bialystok, E. (1997). The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 13, 116-137. Birdsong, D. (1992). Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition. Language, 68, 706-755. Birdsong, D. (2005). Nativelikeness and non-nativelikeness in L2A research. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43, 319-328. Birdsong, D., & Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational constraints in secondlanguage acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 235-249. Bley-Vroman, R. (1988). The fundamental character of foreign language learning. In W. Rutherford &M. Sharwood Smith (Eds.), Grammar and second language teaching: A book of readings (pp.19-30). Colombo, J. (1982). The critical period concept: Research, methodology, and theoretical concerns. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 260-275. Curtiss, S. (1977). Genie: A psycholinguistic study of a modern day “wildchild”. New York: Academic Press. Flege, J. E., Frieda, A. M., & Nozawa, T. (1997). Amount of native-language (L1) use affects the pronunciation of an L2. Journal of Phonetics, 25, 169-186. Flege, J. E., Munro, M., & MacKay, I. (1995). Factors affecting degree of perceived foreign accent in a second language. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 99, 1161-1173. Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60-99. Krashen, S. D. (1975). The critical period for language and its possible bases. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 263, 211-224. Lenneberg, E. (1967). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley. Long, M. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251-285. Long, M. (2005). Problems with supposed counter-evidence to the Critical Period Hypothesis. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43, 287-317. Moyer, A. (1999). Ultimate attainment in L2 phonology: The critical factors of age, motivation, and instruction. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 81-108. Oyama, S. (1978). The sensitive period and comprehension of speech. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 16, 1-17. Patkowski, M. (1980). The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning, 30, 449-472. Scovel, T. (1988). A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Thompson, I. (1991). Foreign accents revisited: The English pronunciation of Russian immigrants. Language Learning, 41, 177-204. White, L., & Genesee, F. (1996). How native is near-native? The issue of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 12, 233-265. Read More